A Yao grammar

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m

I

A YAO GRAMMAR

A YAO GRAMMAR

BY

MEREDITH ^ANDERSON

M.R.C.S. (Eng.), F.R.G.S., F. R.A.I.
NYASALAND MEDICAL SERVICE

EDITOR OF "CHIIKALA CHA WAYAO " ; AUTHOR OP "NOTES ON 'CHIIKALA CHA
WAYAO, * " " NDANO JA CHE 8ULBMANI," ETC., ETC.

LONDON

SOCIETY FOR PROMOTING
CHRISTIAN KNOWLEDGE

NBW YORK & TORONTO : THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

1922

TO

The Et. Hon. WINSTON SPBNCEE CHURCHILL, M.P.

PREFACE.

Since the first edition of this hook was published I
have had the opportunity of visiting Yaoland proper,
in Portuguese East Africa and the country north of the
Rovuma. I have thus been enabled to stud/y more thor-
oughly the language as it is spoken by the Aniasaninga
and Amangoche Yaos ; as a result the Grammar has
been thoroughly revised and some important construc-
tions added.

The Vocabulary has been enlarged and now includes
most of the words in common use, though of course it
makes no pretension to completeness. Unfortunately
my dictionary is still incomplete, largely owing to the
loss of MSS representing several years* work.

In this edition the classification of the nouns has
been altered so as to bring it into line with other works
on Bantu langu/iges ; this is necessary for the purpose
of comparison. The scheme adopted is a modified form
of that introduced by Bleek} and is one that will in the
course of time, I believe, become universal.

The orthography remains the same, though it is
admittedly imperfect and invites criticism, I felt, how-
ever, that the purpose of the book might be defeated by
the introduction of a number of strange symbols —

^"-4 Compa/tative Qrawmar of South African Languages" by
W, H, I. Bleek, Fh,D,, Trubner afid Co., London, 1869,

• m

Vll

Vlll PREFACE

strange^ that is to say, to the average man. It is for
the average man that this hook is primarily intended
as a practical handbook to the language, and I have
therefore retained the spelling familiar to all,

I have introduced phonetic methods of teaching pro-
nunciation at the suggestion of Miss K, H, Nixon Smith
of the U.M.CA., and the section on the alphabet has
been entirely reivritten with the help of notes which she
very kindly drafted especially for the purpose.

In conclusiont my thanks are due to those who, by
their criticism, have helped me in the revision of the
first edition. Many of their suggestions Jiave been
adopted, and I shall be grateful if readers of this
edition will render me a similar service,

M. S.

Cambridge,
1922.

PREFACE TO FIRST EDITION.

The Yao tribe is, at the present day, so scattered
throughout East Central Africa, that the language
is inevitably becoming broken up into dialects. I have
been mostly associated with the Machinga Yao settled
in Nyasaland, but judging by the speech of individuals
of other branches of the tribe whom I have met, the
dialects differ rather in vocabulary and idiom than in
gram,mar. In other words, though som,e expressions
used in this book may be peculiar to the Machinga Yax),
from whom I have obtained them, the gramm^ar is that
of the language common to all Yaxys.

With regard to the arrangem^ent of the subject-
matte7% I have covered as much ground as is feasible
in the first feiv chapters in order to enable the student
to begin speaking the language as soon as possible.
This has inevitably resulted in discontinuity, but I
venture to hope that the advantages of this arrange-
ment will be found to outweigh its drawbacks.

When writing the exercises I have used colloquial
Yax) as far as possible, and have not hesitated to trans-
late this into colloquial English in the Key, I think
such a proceeding is justifiable, as the exact shade of
meaning is more likely to be appreciated when put in
everyday language, than when expressed in the classic
phrase of the typical conversational primer,

ix b

X PREFACE TO FIBST EDITION

In the vocabulary I have not attempted to do more
than give 8om£ of the more com,mjon words — it is a vo-
cabulary to the hookf nothing more, I hope to publish
a Yao dictionary in the near future.

The various accents used in the book have been
introduced somewhat reluctantly, and as their function
is merely to teach the pronunciation of the words, they
have not been used outside the vocabularies.

In com,piling the whole book I have freely consulted
Dr. Hethenvick*8 ^^ Handbook to the Yao Language,'*
and I must acknowledge my indebtedness to the author
of that work as the pioneer who has greatly simplified
iny task,

I am also indebted to Mr. W. P. Ronaldson for
mxiny valuable suggestions and substantial assistance*

Meredith Sanderson.

Karonga, Nyasaland,
1916.

I I

INTRODUCTION.

The WaYao themselves say that they take their name
from the hill Yao near Likopolwe in Portuguese
East Africa, and that they first became a tribe when
their forefathers lived in that neighbourhood. It is
evident from their initiation ceremonies that, like the
predynastic Egyptians, their religion formerly centred
on u conical hill surmounted by a tree, and it may well
be that Yao was such a hill, and the prototype of the
mound in the Lupanda ceremony. It is probable that
the name Acha'dba, by which the WaYao are known to
the Anyanja, is derived from Chax), the singular form
of Foo.

This hill is in the centre of Yaoland proper which
includes only a small part of Nyasaland ; it was only in
recent years that the Machinga Yao invaded the Shire
Valley, the Mangoche Yao spread to the Mlanje and
Blantyre districts, and the A-Masaninga occupied the
lake shore.^ Practically speaking, the Yao is a stranger
in Nyasaland, and few indeed of the younger genera-
tion whose men wear white skull-caps, and their women
the chipini, have any right to call themselves Yaos.
They are the result of inter-marriage with the con-
quered Nyanja tribes; many have hardly a drop of
Yao blood in them, and ** their speech bewrayeth them."

^ For the traditional history of the WaYao the reader is referred to
'*Ghiikala cha WaYao," by Yohanna B. Abdullah, edited aud trans-
lated into English by the Author, and published in Zomba, 1919.

zi

Xll INTRODUCTION

These are they who say chimofnnwsi for yalumo, kapena
for panjipa, iisanganaanga for chitema.

For pure Yao we must go to Yaoland ; our criterion
must be the language spoken there.

It must not be supposed, however, that the pure
language is not understood in Nyasaland. The grammar
of the language is identical everywhere; it is more
elaborate and idiomatic in Yaoland, but the rules given
in the following pages hold good whether north of the
Rovuma or in the Blantyre district. ChiYao is a
language, not a dialect. It is only with regard to
vocabvilary that a warning is necessary. A word is
not necessarily a Yao word because it is used by a
native calling himself a Yao, even though he insist that
it is.

The Yao language has affinities with some of the
neighbouring tongues, more particularly with those to
the north and east — ChiNgonde, ChiKinga, and Chi-
Makua — and, of course, in a broader sense, with other
members of the great Bantu family. In many respects,
however, it is vinique, and is of exceptional interest
to the philologist owing to the many archaic forms
which have survived in it. It would be a great pity if,
owing to European influences, this wonderful language
were stifled by the spread of " kitchen " Swahili and
** pidgin " ChiNyanja. It is to ward off such a calamity
that this book has been written. It is not claimed that
it contains much that is new, but an attempt has been
made to present the grammar of ChiYao in an easily
assimilable form.

A YAO GRAMMAR

CHAPTER I.
I. THE ALPHABET.

1. General Considerations.

The Yao language was first written by the European,
and as this was before Phonetics became a science, the
English alphabet was used and thus made to record
sounds for which it was ill adapted. A similar course
was adopted for other languages belonging to the Bantu
group, and each writer beng free to follow his own fancy
there has been a regrettable lack of uniformity, and in
some instances one speech-sound is differently repre-
sented in different written languages.

The author of a new text-book is therefore on the
horns of a dilemma, — if he fellows precedent his record
of the language will be inexact, but if he uses the Inter-
national Phonetic Script he runs grave risk of alienating
students by the introduction of strange symbols and
diacritical marks.

In this book, therefore, it has been decided to use the
conventional symbols familiar to all, but to teach pro-
nunciation by means of phonetic methods.^ The assist-
ance of Miss Nixon Smith of the U.M.C.A. was invoked,

1 Those wishing to get a general idea of the science of Phonetics
are recommended to read "General Phonetics" by G. Noel-
Armfield, published by Hefifer <fe Sons, Ltd., Cambridge,

X

2 A YAO GEAMMAB

and the following account of the Yao speech-sounds has
been written in collaboration with her.

It is necessary to premise that in phonetics the roof of
the mouth is regarded as consisting of three parts, — the
"teeth-ridge," the hard and the soft palates. Corre-
sponding to these the tongue is described as having a
"blade" (including the tip), a "front" used with the
hard palate, and a " back " opposite the soft palate.

It should also be appreciated that sounds may be
"voiced" or "breathed," that is, the vocal chords may
vibrate or not in their production. P, A?, t and s are
breathed, b, ^, d, m and n are voiced sounds ; only the
latter can be sung and a buzzing sound is heard when
the ears are stopped during their production, absent with
breathed sounds.

2. The Vowel Sounds.

In phonetics a number of "cardinal vowels" have
been fixed upon by reference to which any vowel sound
can be described ; a record of these may be obtaine<J if
desired from the Gramophone Company (No. B., 804).
Any vowel sound will either be identical with one of the
cardinals or he between two of them.

In ChiYao only five symbols (a, e, i, o and u) are used
for the vowel sounds, but there are at least six, a having
two distinct values. Any vowel may be long or short
and the signs "■ and ^ are used to diflferentiate where
necessary in teaching pronunciation, though not, of
course, elsewhere.

a represents two distinct sounds, one a " back vowel,"
(i.e. it is made in the back of the mouth), resembling the
a in the English word "calm," and the other a front
vowel as in mwauBxshe, husangaXdJ,a ; this front a is very
characteristic of ChiYao, and resembles the first part of
the diphthong sound ai in English **high" Both a

THE ALPHABET 3

sounds lie between cardinals 4 and 5^ the ^^ back" a near
cardinal 5, the "front" a nearer 4. Final a is a very
short front a, almost cardinal 4.

i is very nearly the i in ** machine," but the tongue is a
little lower in the mouth and the lips a little further
apart ; it is a front vowel and lies between cardinals 1
and 2 but nearer to 2.

u is practically equivalent to the w in '* rule ; " it must
never be sounded like the u in " cube." It is a back
vowel, between cardinals 7 and 8.

e resembles the sound of e in " get," but the tongue
position is higher ; it is a front vowel, between cardinals
2 and 3. It is thus intermediate between a and i, so that
when these vowels follow each other in this order they
form e (hence, for example, ma-iso =« mesoy

is intermediate between the sound of aw in English
" saw " and the first part of the vowel soimd in English
** so ; " the lips are well rounded and there is no trace of
a diphthong as in English "so." It is a back vowel,
between cardinals 6 and 7, and is intermediate between
a and u, so that when these vowels follow each other in
this order they form o (for example, wa-u-nomdi = wo-
nandi).

Note particularly that there is in ChiYao no vowel
sound like the English a in " fat " or " mat."

There are no diphthongs ; where two vowels are written
together there is no coalition of sound and each must be
given its full value. For example: -jaulay -poola, pro-
nounced -ja-ula, 'po'O'la,

3. The Consonants.

Of the English consonants, /, q, c, fe, r, v; x and z are
not required in writing ChiYao. B, d, t and tv reqtdre
no special mention; they are pronounced as in English.
There remain j, k, I, ^, m, «, p, s and y ; also three

4 A YAO GRAMMAB

oonsonants which do not occur in English, represented
by the symbols ng\ ny^ and ib, and finally ch,

O is always hard as in " gone ; " the soft ^ as in ^' giant "
is written as /.

/ might with advantage be written as dy. It is the
voiced form of ch

^ K and p in ChiYao are never aspirated as, for example,
in ChiNyanja and Southern English (in the latter, for
instance, the word ** pit " might be written " pMt ").

L, initial, is made by the tip of the tongue against the
teeth ridge ; when medial, the whole blade of the tongue
often comes into play, but the sound can never be repre-
sented by r as there is no suggestion of a trilL There
glso occxirs what is called the " palatal Z," of which there
are two types; the first is produced by contact of the
front of the tongue with the hard palate and is accom-
panied by a glide of the y type. It is written as ly in
this book, and it must be remembered that this y is part
of the Z, as it were, and not syUabic as in the English
word "lying." Thus the word lyuwa must not be pro-
nounced ** lai-oo-wa " ; lyu is one syllable. The other
type of palatal I is that known as the " dark Z " in Eng-
lish, as in * milk " ; it is produced still further back and
is accompanied by a glide of the u type. In this book
it is written Iw (e.g. Iwala, Iwesi),

M is made with closed lips and in a few words is syl-
labic (e.g. mtwe, " head," mhwa, " dog," mhyo^ " kidneys ").
In other Yao words the initial m is not syllabic, and
when it precedes a consonant it is said very rapidly.
The lips are closed and the soimd made through the nose.
Care should be taken not to pronounce initial m as oom
in ChiYao.

N is also a nasal consonant ; it occurs in combination
with d, g, and y, and is then not syllabic. In rapid
speech it is often diflScult to distinguish between m and n.

THE ALPHABET

8 in Yao differs from the English s in being produced
further back ; the tip of the tongue is curled back till it
nearly touches the hard palate. In English the tip of
the tongue is used with the teeth ridge. The correspond-
ing voiced sound (z) does not occui* in pure Yao though
it naay be heard in some localities, probably owing to
association with the Anyanja.

7 is never syllabic in ChiYao ; it occurs either alone or
as a glide in combination with I, m, p, s, and t

Ch is regarded by some as equivalent to ty, but in the
opinion of the author it is a compound of t with sh (com-
pare the ch of "church'* with the sound oi t and sh in
the words "thaf s/iows"i). Oh is sometimes written as
c. It is never guttural.

Ng^ is identical with x> of the International Phonetic
Script. It differs from ng (without the apostrophe) in that
the g sound is not carried on to the succeeding vowel.
It occurs in the English words " singing," ** bringing " ; in
Yao these words would be written ** singling," *' bring'ing."
Cf. also "finger" with "ringer" ( = "ring'er").

The ng^ sound may be learned in two ways — first by
trying to say ga through the nose, when a vibration will
be felt, and secondly by working backwards from the
front of the mouth, saying na with the tip of the tongue
successively on the lower teeth, on the upper teeth, on
the teeth ridge, and on the roof of the mouth; then
again with the back of the tongue touching the soft
palate. It is with the tongue in the last-mentioned
position that the correct sound is produced. When
able to say ng^a, repeat these exercises with go and no,
gu and nu, gwa and nwaj thus acquiring the sounds rig^o,
ng^u and ng'wa. The following words may be used for
practice: ng'aso ("furnace"), ng^ombe ("ox"), hu-ng'anda

1 " General Phonetics," p. 20.

6 A tAO OUAMllAft

("to play"), ngong'o ("tortoise")— cf. ngongo^'a, staff"),
— JctM^^wa ("to drink"), kung^ong^ondala ("to shrivel").

Ny, thus conventionally written with two letters, is a
single sound represented in the Phonetic Script by J^. It
is made by pressing the tongue forward so that the tip is
in contact with the lower teeth and the front with the
hard palate. As already mentioned, y is never syUabic
and care should be taken not to fall into the common
error of saying Nai-asa (as Nai'(i8aland) instead of Nyasa,
which word has only two syllables; nya and sa,

^ is commonly heard and pronounced by the European
as w. In the Phonetic Script the sound is written v. It
differs from w in two particulars— the position of the
tongue and the shape of the lips. " In t(; the lips are
rounded and pushed forward and the back of the tongue
is raised" as in u ; " in tr, on the other hand, the lips are
spread " and the back of the tongue is at rest.^ To learn
how to make this sound : (i) place the lips as for b (the
soimd merely, not the name of the letter), then open the
lips a little, keep the teeth well separated and try to say
w ; (ii) say a strong va as in English and then try to say
the same sound without using the teeth; (iii) pretend
you are blowing out a candle and then voice the sound.

This sound is worth some little trouble to acqu re. as
in ChiYao it is important, many words being differenti-
ated by its use ; e.g. kuwaiaj ** to wear (clothes) " ; kutbalaj
"to shine"; kuivila, "to die for"; ku-uwila, "to tie
loosely."

II. ACCENT.

1. The Accentuation of Syllables.

In most Bantu languages the accent is always placed
on the last syllable but one, but this is not the case in

^ Quotations from Noel-Armfield's ^* General Phonetics," p. 72.

ACCENT 7

ChiYao, and it is impossible to frame any rule for the
guidance of the student, except that it never falls on the
last syllable.

In some words the accent is so evenly distributed that
the stress cannot be recognised as faUing on any one
particular syUable; in other instances the accent is
marked, but it may fall on any syllable except the last.
Sometimes the accent is postponed by the addition of a
suffix, in other cases no change is made.

Note, — All syllables end in a vowel, and this has a subtle in-
fluence on pronunciation which is not always appreciated.
Take, for example, the word chisonde ; the three syllables are
ehif 80t and nde : thus, chi-so-ndey not chia-on-de, as one often
hears such a word pronounced. It is neglect of this point,
obvious as it may seem, which renders the most (grammatically)
correct speech unintelligible to the native.

2. The Accentuation op Vowels.^

Some words, spelt alike as far as the mere consonants
and vowels are concerned, have different meanings if the
vowel be long or short : —

e,g. lipata, a fishdng-weir ; Hp^ta, the butt-end ;
mb&nde, shells ; mbande, sides,

III. THE INFLECTION OF WORDS.'

A number of words, identical in form, differ in mean-
ing according to the inflection of the voice with which
they are spoken.

Taking the sign (') as indicating a rising, and f) as a
faUing inflection, we differentiate, for example : —

ngang^, beer ; ngang^, a guinea fowl ;

chitet^, a grasshopper ; chitetfe, native cloth ;
{cf. chitSte, being slow to anger),

^ These accents are not used outside the vocabularies.

8 A YAO GBAMMAB

IV. EUPHONIC CHANGES.

It would be impossible to lay too much stress on the
importance of a thorough knowledge of the euphonic
changes which take place in the Yao language. The
student is, however, not recommended to learn these by
heart at this stage, but they should be studied carefully,
and the exercises worked. They will soon become'
familiar, even instinctive ; in the meantime this section
should be referred to in any case of diflBculty.

These changes may be classified under four headings : —

(1) The influence of the letter n on other consonants.

(2) The changes in certain consonants caused by e

and i.

(3) The interaction of vowels.

(4) The elision of con^nants.

(1) The changes which occur in some consonants
when the letter n is prefixed to them are
especially seen in forming the plural of the lu
class of noun (the prefix of which is n), and
the 1st person singular of many tenses of the
verb, where the connective pronoun is n.

They are as foDow : —
n4 becomes nd.

n-t

nd.

n-k

ng.

«

n-j „

ny.

n-ch „

nj.

n-w „

mbw before e or i, and sometimes

before a.

n-w becomes mh before o or w, and sometimes

before a.

•

n-u becomes mh.

n-p „

mh.

EUPHONIC CHANGES 9

Similarly —

m-u sometimes becomes mbu or mbw.
m-w „ „ mb or mbw.

Exercise 1. Correct the following : —

NteeHejkunleka., w/fusosa, w^aule, tiwc/iilola,akuwtf ona,
nweni, nZesile, wA;uku, nkwi, kuww;ona, kunt^laga.

(2) k before e or i becomes ch.
g ,y ^ » j-

Exercise 2. Correct the following : —

AleA;e, naiA?e, ajaule^e, mta^e, tala^e, w*eleA;e, wZuAiile,
nwalege.

(3) a-i becomes e,

i before another vowel becomes y,

(4) n is elided before s, i, w, w, or n; e.g. saso for

nsasOy iiche for niiche, etc.
Z is sometimes elided after ti; e.g. aninde for

anlinde.
I is usually dropped after A;t^, j)a and mu in words

having the prefix li- ; e.g. A?«^ litinji = kwitinji ;

joa liganga = pegariga.
I is almost invariably elided between two vowels,

e.g. lyalinandi » lyainandi = lyenandi; pilikana

= pikana.

Similarly —

Other consonants may be elided ; e.g. syasina7idi

s syenandi ; ja mitela » jetela,
j is often elided after ku, the w becoming w ; e.g.

kujaula =» kwaula ; kujepepala = kwepepala, etc.

10 A YAO OEAMMAK

Exercise 3. Correct the following : —

Ciche, tome, iuku, waunandi, yaikulungwa, nsulo,
nsosile, IjaliQito, ja7^A;ulungwa; kuji&a,, ku/asima,
pa Zitala, ku /ttinji, lya Zijela.

(5) Thus mb may stand for mw, nw, nb, np, or nu.

fid

>i

V

«< or nZ.

kwi

11

»

fcit/i, kuli, or Aim.

kwa

»>

M

kuja.

mwi

»

M

muli.

lye

»»

>>

lyali.

sye

j>

J>

syasi.

9^

j>

>>

gali.

Exercise 4. What euphonic changes have occurred in
the following words ?

Ngwete, kwina, yepiUyu, lyesimba, ngonji, lyekoka,
mbwete, mbatile, sichi, tinjiika, ngawone, tini-
mbone, timbone, kwinjila, ngulola, kwimba,
nyendeje, kwimuka, ndenda, kwikonde, mwipenu,
kwanga, syenandi.

CHAPTER II.

THE CONCORD.

1. All parts of speech in Yao consist of a stem or root
to which are added various prefixes and suflBxes ; of these
the prefixes ara by far the more important.

The function of these prefixes is to classify the idea
conveyed by the root, and crystaUise it, as it were. Take
for example the root -ndu; this has the idea of existence or
being : prefix mw-, and the mere idea of being is crystal-
lised into the conception of an actual living person —
mundu, " a human being." With the prefix cW-, the idea
of mere individuality is obtained — chindu, " a thing,"
" an article." Similarly with ka- (indicating smaUness)
we get — kcmdu, " a trifle."

During the process of evolution this method of building
up speech has naturally become obscured, and my object
in alluding to it has been merely to call attentiqii to the
fact that these prefixes represent elements from which
the language has been evolved.

Their importance lies in this, that they are attached
to the roots of all parts of speech, and it is by their use
that the noun, verb, adjective, etc., are brought into
agreement.

This agreement is known as the *' Concord." It has
its parallel in the agreement of the parts of speech in
European languages.

2. The ruling part of speech is the noun, and it is
evident that, if nouns be classified according to t^leir

(11)

12 A TAO GBAMMAB

respective prefixes, each prefix will become the charac-
teristic of its class, and can be used to bring other
parts of speech into agreement therewith. Further, this
" characteristic " by itself may be used to represent any
class of noun and so constitute a true pronoun.

An example will make this clear. We have seen that
the word chindu consists of a root {-ndu) and a prefix (chi-).
This syllable (chi) is the characteristic of the word chiitdu
and may be used in reference thereto ; for example, it
may be used as a relative pronoun (which), or a sub-
jective or objective pronoun (it), referring to chindu.

e.g. Ghinda chi nacWweni, the thing which I {it) saw.
Chindu chi c^tgwile, the thing which (it) has fallen.

Similarly, for nouns of other classes (e.g. lijela, ** a hoe") :

Ltjela li naZtweni, the hoe which I {it) saw,
Zftjela li k'gwile, the hoe which {it) has fallen.

The characteristic enters also into the formation of
other parts of speech, bringing them into agreement with
its particular class of noun ; these examples are given
merely to illustrate the meaning of the term ** Concord."

It wiy be seen that the result of the concord in the
above examplesis alliterative, but this is not always the
case. Thus the characteristic of the word mundu is not
mu but ju ; of majela, not ma but ga. An explanation of
this is found by comparison with other Bantu languages
in some of which nouns have a double prefix, the ordinary
class prefix and a prepretix. These preprefixes are of
great interest as in form they are intermediate between
the class prefixes and the class characteristics, and they
illustrate how these have come to diflfer.

Those interested in etymology will find a few notes on
the class prefixes at the end of this chapter (par. 7).

^

the ooncobd 13

3. The Noun.

In ChiYao, as in other Bantu languages, there is no
distinction of gender, nor are nouns declined in respect
of case. Number is indicated by a change of prefix.

We see then that not only the meaning of a noun but
its number is varied by means of the prefix which is
attached to the root, and, further, that this prefix — or a
modification thereof — is used to bring other parts of
speech into agreement with the noun (the " Concord ").

Seeing that in ChiYao there are no less than 18
diflPerent noun prefixes it is obvious that some scheme of
classification is necessary as an aid to learning the plural
of any given noun and its characteristic syllables, singular
and plural. The tables on pp. 14-15 give the class pre-
fixes and characteristics of ChiYao with examples of
representative Yao nouns in each class.

There is another prefix which must be mentioned, viz,
NA-. This, in Yao, is always prefixed to one or other of
the class prefixes; e.g. Nalwii, "a chameleon;" Namlondola,
" a black hornet." It takes the concord of the 1st class,
JU, and makes its plural by the addition of ACHI-, —
achinalwii, achinamlondola. Most of the noims taking this
prefix are either names of animals or terms of more or
less jocular contempt ; e.g. nandumho, " a man with a
' paunch \" It would seem to be a way of personifying a
noun of another class, as it is often employed with names
of animals in folk-lore. This would also account for such
terms as nangolo, " a parent ; " namkopoka, ** one who has
just passed the initiation ceremonies."

4. This table wiD become more intelligible if the illus-
trations of the use of the characteristic following it are
studied. For the sake of simplicity the examples given
in paragraph 2 will be used again.

14

A YAO OBAMMAB

Class.

CUss

Prefix.

Ezftmple of Noun.

Glass
Char.

Remarks.

I.

M-

MU-

Mchanda, y<nUh
Mundu, person
Mwanache^ child
Singano, needle

JU

(Living)
Personal

II.

A

A-

ACHA-
ACHI-

^anache^ children
&t&ti, faiher
achacaanda, youths
achisingano, needles

Wa

Plurals of CI. I.

III.

M-

MU-

Mtela, tree
Musi, village
Mwesi, nkoon

U

(Living)
Impersonal

IV.

MI-

mitela, trees
misi, vUlages
miesi, moons {months)

Jl

Plurals of CI. III.

V.

LI-

Lijela, hoe
Ljra^, day

LI

%

VI.

MA-

majela, hoes

mo^a (mau^a), days

GA

Plurals of CI. V.

VII.

CHI-

Chijuni, bird
Chome, cat

CHI

Plurals of CI. VII.

VIII.

I-

ijuni, birds
yome, cats

I

IX.

N-

MB-

(nw.)

Nguku, fowl
Nyninba, house
Mbusi, goat

*Uti, gun

JI

X.

N-
NY-i
MB-

nguku, fowls
nyumba, houses
mbusi, goats
'uti, guns

SI

Plurals of CI IX.

Before a vowel.

THE CONCORD

16

Class.

Class
Prefix.

Example of Noun.

Class
Char.

Remarks.

XI.

LU-

Lukonji, rope

LU

The plural of this
class ia CI. X., e.g.
Ngonji, ropes

XII.

TU-

tutela, little trees

TU

PluralsofCLXIII.

XIII.

KA-

Katela, little tree

KA

Diminutives

XIV.

U-

Ugono, sleepvng-mat
Ugali, porridge
Ukungwi, skill

U

Collective and
abstract, no plu-
ral ; others take
CI. VI.,
e,g* Magono

XV.

KU-
KW-

Kuluma, hitvng

KU

Infinitive and
Gerund.

(KU)i
KWA-

kwa-
pa-

-kuteleka,
■ a cookin^g- •
place

KU

Locality (to)

XVI.

PA-i

PA

Locality (at)

XVII.

(MXJ.)^
MWA-

mwa-

MU

Locality (in)

Classes I. and IL are somewhat irregular but have been
included for the sake of completeness.

Class

I. Mu-ndn

ju {or jua)

na-m6-weni,

A man

whom

I (him) saw.

Mw-anache

ju

a-gwile,

A child

who .

{he) has fallen.

1 These locative prefixes are not, in ChiYao, used as noun
prefixes, but their characteristics are similar in all respects to
those of the nouns (see Par. 7).

16

A YAO GRAMMAB

Class

II. Wa-nAvL u

People whom

' Tra-nache u

Children who

III. Jf^^-si u

M-tela u

rV. Jfisi ji nayiweni.
V. i^jela li naZiweni.
VI. Majela^a na^aweni.
VII. GhomQ chi nsxhiweni,
VIII. Fome * naiweni.
IX. Mbn&i ji nayiweni.
X. Mbusi si nasiweni.
XI. Zri^konji lu naZt^weni.
XII. Tutels, tu na^ttweni.

XIII. Zatela ka nakaweni,

XIV. CTjgono u nai^weni.
XV. Kulumsi kit naA;tAweni.

Zii;akuteleka ku mJcuwem,
' Zt^akuteleka ku kugwile,
XVI. Pakuteleka pa na;;aweni.
Pakuteleka pa ^agwile.
XVII. Mwakateleka, mu namwweni.
Jfi^akuteleka mu mugwile.
(For further illustrations of the use of- the concord,
see Appendix IV., page 127).

na-i2)a-weni,

I {them) saw.

i8a-gwile,

(they) have fallen,

na-u-weni.

w-gwile.

Mtela ji jigwile.

Zrijela li Zigwile.

Majela ga gagwiLe.

Chi^uni chi chigynLe,

Jjuni i igwile.

Tfyumba ji jigwHe.

J^^umba si ^tgwile.

Zrz^konji lu Zi^gwile.

^Tt^tela tu ^ligwile.

Zatela ka A^agwile.

CTgali u ttgwile.

6. The student is strongly advised to learn the charac-
teristic syllables appropriate to the diflferent classes of
nouns before he proceed^ to the next chapter. He will
be well repaid for the labour entailed as otherwise he
wiU constantly have to be referring back to them, and,
moreover, he will never be able to speak Yao correctly
until he has thoroughly mastered them.

THE CONCOED 17

The following plan is recommended : —

(1) Note that the characteristics of the follgwing classes are
alliterative— 2, 5, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 16.

(2) Note that from 1-13 inclusive the odd numbers are al-
located to singular prefixes, and the even, to plural ones.

(3) Learn the Class Characteristics in conjunction with the
{ Class prefixes rather than by the numbers of the classes. Thus,
I it is better to learn the syllable JI as the characteristic of " the
{ MI class," not as that of " the fourth class."

This is best achieved in the first instance by learning them
off by heart, thus : —
" Mu, ju ; ^a ; ^a ; mu, u ; mi, ji ; n, ji ; n, si ; " and so on.

4. The important classes are the first fourteen. The others '
may, if the list is found to be too formidable, be omitted until
a more advanced stage.

(5) When the characteristics have been learnt it will be
found to be good practice to go through the English- Yao Voca-
bulary, giving each noun its appropriate class characteristic.

I The parts of speech have been indicated in this vocabulary

' partly for this purpose. These nouns need not be learnt ; the

object of this exercise is merely to familiarize the sound of the
class prefix with that of the class characteristic.

' The only difficulty may be with nouns having no prefix — as to

whether they belong to the first or ninth classes. Most of these

< belong to the latter.

i

6. Summary.

(1) Every part of speech consists of a stem or root and
various prefixes and suflSxes ; these modify the primary
meaning of the root.
1 (2) The noun prefixes when attached to other parts of

speech bring these into agreement with the noun : this
agreement is known as ^' the Concord.'^

(3) Noun prefixes may be singular or plural, and certain

2

18 A YAO^GBAMMAB

plural prefixes are especially associated with certain
singular ones, ie, they tend to run in pairs.

(4) This applies also to these prefixes when they are
used as characteristic (pronominal) syllables.

7. A few notes on general etymology with regard to
the nouns may be of interest.

(1) MU- The 1st and 2nd prefixes indicate persons and
\V"A- their offices. MU in general conveys the idea
of life. A few nouns having no prefix take the
concord of this prefix (JU, WA) but these are mostly
foreign words.
JU- This is derived from MU through the archaic pre-
prefix QU- which still survives as such in the North
Elgon dialects.^

The peculiar plural prefix achi-, acha- appears also in Chi-
Makua, though in that language it is frequently softened to
n- and is not confined to the second class as in Yao. It is
probable that it is allied to the honorific Che ; this is prefixed to
names of persons, and corresponds to our English " Mr." (cf.
'ChekidUf "old," in which the syllable che is strongly accented)
and both are probably derived from the IX. prefix Chi- in its aug-
mentative sense. Acha is said to be actually in use as an
honorific among some Yaos."

NA- Johnston refers to this as a sex-prefix,* but there
seems to be no indication of sex as used in Yao. I
think it is more likely a form of the Copula (m, no,
etc.), and may be allied to the form of the impera-
tive in no- (e.g. nalole, " look I ") ; its use with any
given noun would then indicate emphasis. It is

^ Sir H. H. Johnston, "A Comparative Study of the Bantu
and Semi Bantu Languages," p. 19.

* Ibid. p. 234. Personally I have heard this honorific used
with only two words, both Swahili — hwana and bibi {chibwanaj
cichibibi).

« /6id., p. 19.

THE CONCORD 19

difficult to explain, otherwise, the retention of the
. ordinary class prefix, and also that of the prefix na-
itself in the plural ; it is unprecedented to have
three prefixes to a noun (achi-na-m-londola). In
folk-lore, moreover, it is often given to nouns,
especially names of animals, which normally have
only the class prefix.

Johnston^ calls attention to this ^* directive n*'
but does not seem to associate it with this na- prefix.

(2) MU- The third prefix (MU-) is probably identical in origin
MI- with the first. Classes III. and IV. also comprise

living things, though impersonal as contrasted with
the personal forms in Classes I. and II. ; thus all
trees belong to Classes III. and IV. In addition,
things intimately connected with man are often
put into these classes (parts of the body, village,
etc.).

The 3rd characteristic U has a similar derivation to the 1st,
but in this case the G of the preprefix is dropped, possibly to
differentiate it from the 1st class. In the fourth characteristic
the G of the preprefix GI- is softened to J.

(3) LI- These classes contain mostly augmentatives and it
MA- is not uncommon to hear a noun which usually

belongs to another class given this prefix to indi-
cate size (e.g. lijuni, *'a large bird,'* instead of the
more usual chijuni).

The 6th prefix MA- is also used for collective nouns, and
liquids. Its characteristic GA is identical with the preprefix of
this class. A few nouns take the 7th prefix (chi-) in their singu-
lar and the 6th in the plural, e.g. chitendoj " an action," plural
matendo.

Some nouns of the 11th class, also, take their plural alter-
natively in the 6th or 10th, e.g. lukongoloj **a leg," plural
ngongolo or makongolo.

Finally, most foreign words of recent introduction are given
the singular concord of the 1st class, but take the prefix and

^ Sir H. H. Johnston, op. cit^ p. 32.

20 A YAO GBAMMAB

concord of the 6th in the plural, e.g. huhi, " a book/' plaral
mabuhu.

(4) CHI- Noans having these prefixes are often instruments

I- and inanimate things in general. Large size may
be implied to a certain extent but not (in Yao) to
the same degree as in the 5th class. Many neigh-
bouring languages have VI- as their 8th prefix — ^a
form intermediate between the original BI and the
Yao I.

(5) N- Torrend^ suggests that this class was formed for

indiscriminate objects — a sort of asylum for home-
less nouns— obviously a confession of failure to
determine its purpose, at which it must be left.

The archaic preprefixes are GI- (9th) and THI- or ZI- (10th),
to which the characteristics JI and SI are obviously allied.

(6) The LU- prefix has not survived in many Bantu languages.
It indicates, in general, length, and hence its general appli-
cation in Yao to rivers.

(7) TU-, plural, is in some languages the complement of LU-,
singular. Hence its position in the classification between LXJ-
and KA-. In Yao this prefix is diminutive only.

EA- is nearly always diminutive throughout the Bantu
group ; in Yao, always.

(8) The U- prefix in general gives an abstract meaning to a
root, e.g. umme, "price," from -svmay "buy," or "sell," Some-
times it has a collective meaning, and hence its association
with the 6th prefix MA-.

The root of some nouns has been cut down in Yao until its
first sound is U, and, though they are placed in the N class, the
class prefix has been dropped (e.g. uti, " a gun ; " ula, " rain,"
which should properly be written *utiy 'u^a, to indicate the lost
prefix). Care must be taken to distinguish such words from
nouns whose prefix is U-.

(9) As will be seen from the table the prefix KU- has a double
meaning. The first of these is definitely substantival and cor-
responds to the English Gerund, but it is also used as a locative
like the allied forms PA- and MU-.

1 J. Torrend, S. J., " A Comparative Grammar of the South
African Bantu Languages," p. 86.

THE CONCORD

21

It may be objected that these locative prefixes have no proper
place ia a table of noun-prefixes. Yet in reply one may with
justice contend that such forms as kwakutelekay etc., though
formed from verbs are used substantively (e.g. Kwangali kwa-
kuteleka, " there is no place for cooking "). In any case, how-
ever, they are^ entitled to a place in a table of concords as their
characteristics are identical with those of the noun classes.
Thus KU when used as a preposition, "to,*' requires its own
concord, e.g. ku nyumba kwangu, " to my house,** not ku nyumba
jangu ; in other words, this syllable ku has more the nature of
an extra prefix to the noun nyumba than that of a preposition,
(cf. also the form kuchele, " it is dawn, " lit. " there is dawning,*'
— a form of the locative).

CHAPTER III.

THE NOUN {continued).

1. Useful words are given in the following vocabularies
divided into their appropriate classes. It is recom-
mended that these be learnt by heart : —

CLASS I.
Class Characteristic JU.

Mwanache, a child.
Mundu, a person.
Mchanda, a youth.
Mlamu, a brother- (or sister-)

'in-la/w.
Mlendo, a stranger.

M'mwenye,! a Banyan trader.
Mehimwene, a headman.

Mwanasi, Mnasi, a neigh-

hour.
Mlumbu, a brother, a sister.

Msungu, a European.
Singano, a needle.
Sona, tobacco.

CLASS II.
Class Characteristic, W A.

Wanache.
Wandu.
Achaehanda.
Alamu (polite sing.).^
Achalamu (pL).
Alendo (polite sing,).^
Achalendo (pi).
Amwenye.
Aimwene.*
Waimwene.*
Anasi (polite sing.).^
Achanasi (pi.).
Alumbu (polite sing.).^
Achalumbu (pi).
^^asungu.
Achasingano.

Atati (polite sing.)f^ father, etc.
Achatati (pi).

Amao (polite sing.),^ mother, etc.
Achamao (pi).

^From the Swahili. Conti^st Mioenye ("a chief") having a
similar derivation (achimwenye). ^ Note the double plural.

* The plural of any part of speech may be used with reference
to a single person to imply respect. (See also p. 37, note (4) ;
p. 45, note (1).)

(22)

THE

NOUN

GLASS III.

CLASS IV.

Class Characteristic,

u.

Class Characteristi

Mkono, an arm.

Mikono.

•

Mtela, a tree, medicine.

Mi tela.

MseUy a hoed ro^.

Miseu.

Musi, a village.

Misi.

Msinda, a large village.

Misinda.

Mgoji, a hark rope.

Migoji.

Mchiga, a root.

Michiga.

Mkalo, a knife.

Mikalo.

Mkonga, a huruyh of bananas.

Mikonga.

Mkwamba, a fathom.

Mikwamba.

Mlasi, bamboo.

Milasi.

Mlasa, leaf of boraams palm.

Milasa.

Mgwalangwa, a borassus pcUm

Migwalangwa.

Moto, fire.

Mioto.

Mgunda, a garden.

Migunda.

CLASS V.

CLASS VL

Class Characteristic,

LI.

Class Characteristi

Liganga, a stone.

Maganga.

Litala, a path.

Matala.

Lipenu, a verandah.

Mapenu.

Libweta, a box.

Mabweta.

Lyu^a, a day, the sun.

Mo^a.

Lichika, a reed mat.

Machika.

Ligasa, the palm of the hand.

Magasa.

Ligombo, a banana.

Magombo.

Lijela, a hoe.

Majela.

Likoka, a drag-net.

Makoka.

Likonde, the bush.

Makonde.

Litinji, the bush.

Matinji.

Lilo^e, a word.

Malo^e.

Lina, a name.

Mena (maina).

Lino, a tooth.

Meno (maino).

Lindanda, an egg.

Mandanda.

Lipende, a skin.

Mapende.

Lisimba, a lion.

Masimba.

23

4 A TAO

GBAMMAB

CLASS V.

CLASS VI.

Class Characteristic, LI.

Class Characteristic, GA.

Lisegwe, a noise {of talk,

Masegwe.

laughter, etc.).

Litaka, earth.

Mataka.

Litete, a reed.

Matete. *

Liti^, a valley.

Mati^i.

Liu, ashes.

'Liupa, a hone.

Maupa.

Linage, an axe.

Ma'^ago.

Li'^anga, a sore, a wound.

Ma^anga.

Li^ata, a duck.

Ma'^ata.

#

Mesi, water.

Mate, sense, meaning.

Masengo, work.

2. The Possessive.

The class characteristic prefixed to -a has the meaning
"of" or "for."

Thus :—

Class I.
Class IIL
Class V.

Class II.
Class IV.
Class VI.

)^a.

Ja (ji-a).
Ga (ga-a).

Jua.

Wa (u-a).
Lya (li-a).

The Possessive agrees with the qualified noun.

e,g, Mitela ja Msungu, the European's trees,
Lijela lya atati, the father's hoe.

The Locative ku used in conjunction with the Possess-
ive gives the meaning "from.'* With the name of a
person this locative becomes kwa.

e.g, Litala lya ku musi, the path from the village.
Wandu ^a, kwa Liwonde, people from Liwonde,

Note, — The Possessive is pronounced as though it formed
part of the succeeding word. No hiatus should be perceptible.
Occasionally the Possessive -a becomes -aka ; but this form is
rarely used. E,g, Lwendo Iwaka Muyao, " The restlessness of the
Yao " (from an old song).

THE NOUN 25

Exercise 5. Translate into English : —

Malowe ga wandu ; mwanache jua mlendo ; musi wa
nichimwene ; mikalo ja mlumbu ; ligombo lya mchanda ;
mandanda ga mwanasi; lipende lya lisimba; matete ga
lichika ; mkwamba wa mgoji ; mlamu jua atati ; sona
jua msungu; achisingano wa kwa mmwenye; mkonga
wa ku migunda ; mkono wa amao.

Exercise 6. Translate into ChiYao, giving both
singular and plural : —

The child's arm ; a knife for tobacco ; the root of the
tree; the Banyan's child; the chief of the village; a
duck for the stranger ; bark rope for the tree ; the word
of the European ; bamboo from the valley ; a road from
the chiefs village ; a stone for the path ; a knife from
the Banyan; the noise of the children; water for the
stranger ; the meaning of a word ; father's axe.

3. Formation of Adjectives.

The adjective consists of a stem and two prefixes — the
possessive and the class prefix {not the characteristic).
The latter has the eflfect of converting the stem to which
it is attached into a noun having the meaning

" -ness;" the whole adjective literally translated

might therefore be rendered " of -ness."

e.g. " Mitela jaminandi."

The adjective -navdi is merely a stem, it can never
stand alone. The addition of the prefix " mi- " converts
it into a noun of the fourth class, in agreement with the
substantive *' mitela^" and having the meaning " small-
ness." The addition of the possessive *'ya," also in
agreement with ^^miiela" gives the meaning "trees of
smallness," hence " small trees,"

26 A TAO GBAMMAB

So also : —

Mwanache jua-m-nandi, a small child,
Mkalo wonandi (waunandi), a smcUl knife.

4. Some adjectives like -mbonej ** good," -mnono, " small,"
are really nouns, so that only the possessive is prefixed
to make them agree with a noun. Such forms are easily
recognised by their initial letter m,

e.g. Wandu ^a-mbone, good people.
Maupa gamnono, small bones.

Occasionally this prefix m becomes mi in the plural,
e.g. ng'ombe syamikolo, cows.

The pronominal adjectives {all, other, any, etc.), on the
other hand, prefix the class characteristic only.

e.g. Wandu ^osepe, all the people.
Lilo^e line, another word.

All adjectives follow the noun they qualify.
5. Vocabulary.

(i) True Adjectival Boots.

-jinji, much, many. -pilijru, black.

-nandi, small. -leu, long.

-koto, heatUiful. -jipi> short.

-site, heavy. -lume, male (of persons only).

-nonono, difficult. -kongwe, female {of persons only),

-swela, white. -kulungwa, hig, large.

-jumu, dry. -sisisi, cold.

-jumi, living. -^isi, fresh {of meat), green {of

-chekulu, old {of per- grain, leaves, etc.).

sons only). -nami, false, lying.
-chejeu, red.

mm

THE NOUN 27

(ii) Noun Adjectives (prefixing the possessive only).

-mbone, good. -mkolo, female (of animals),

-mtega, useless. -mnono, small.

-mkambako, male {of animals).

Note. — There is no adjective meaning " bad." The Yao most
often uses the term -ngahimbana, " not good/' in this sense ;
this is really a negative relative (see p. 52), and is mentioned
here for convenience. It prefixes the possessive only.

(iii) Pronominal Adjectives (prefixing the class characteristic
only).

-ose, -osepe, (sing.) the whole, (plur.) all.

-ana -ose, ^

-osepe, / ^**^ '^'

-li ose, any.

-ine, other, more, different.

-ine . . . -ine, some . . . others.

Examples.

Lipende lyosepe, the whole skin.

Musi wose, the whole village.

Magombo gosepe, all the bananas.

Misi j osepe, all the villages.

Wandu ^ana ^ose, every man.

Wandu ^^osepe^ every man, all the people.

Li^^ago lili lyose, any axe.

Malo^e gane, other words, more words, different words.

BxEROiBB 7. Translate into English : —

iliXEROiBB 7. Translate into English : —

Wandu wajinji; matete gamawisi; mitela jamijumu;
mchiga wojumi ; musiwosepe; misi j osepe; mikalojami-
kulungwa ; sona juambone ; achachanda wamtega ; juam-
kongwe ; juamlume ; mawata gamaswela ; majela gama-
jinji; milasi jine; milasa jam bone; mseu woleu; litala
lili lyose ; matete gamajinji ; mandanda gosepe ; mgoji
wojipi ; mesi gamajinji ; maganga gamasito ; miindu
juangalumbana ; litaka lyepiliyu; juampiliyu; mtela
wosito : (inimdu^ iuamchekulu.

wosito ; (inimdu) juamchekulru

28 A YAO QRAMMAB

Exercise 8. Translate into ChiYao : —

Natives (black people) ; white stones ; a fathom of
good rope; tall (long) trees; a dry skin; a beautiful
woman ; a large village ; more water ; many old people ;
a useless knife; long bamboos; green palm for reed-
mats; more palms for the verandah; a small village t
short roots ; all useless fools ; good chiefs ; many sisters ;
large teeth ; everyone (of) the children ; any small
needles ; the tall European ; the whole day ; much work ;
a drake; a male; all lionesses; the black duck; dry
tobacco ; all old Europeans ; any path.

CHAPTER IV.

THE NOUN {continued).

Class VII. Class VIII.

Class Characteristic, CHI. Class Characteristic, I.

Chijuni, a bird,
Chome, a cat

Chitumbili, a species of monkey.
Chiula, a toad,
Chuku, the rainy season,
Chiulo, froth,
Chitengu, a stool,
Chisoti, a cap,
Chipewa, a hat,
Chipanje, wealth,
Ohichili, a peg, a post.
Chipagala, a roof,
Chimanga, maizei
Chinangwa, cassava,
Chisui, a leopard,
Chimbonga, a walking stick,
Chilumbo, a knot,
Ohilumba, an island,
Chikungu, brass (a bracelet).
Chigamba, a patch,
Chitungulu, a wheel,
Chala, afmger, toe,
Chaka, a year^ a festival,
Ghindu, a thing.

Ijuni.

Yome.

Itumbili.

lula.

Yuku.

lulo.

Itengu.

Isoti.

Ipewa.

Ipanje.

Ichili.

Ipagala.

Imanga.

Inangwa.

Isui.

Imbonga.

Ilumbo.

Ilumba.

Ikunga (bracelets),

Igamba.

Itungulu.

Yala.

Yaka.

Indu.

(29)

30 A YAO C^KAHMAR

Class IX. Cr.Ass X.

Class Characteristic, JI. Class Characteristic, SI.

Nouns which belong to the 9th Class in the singular
have the same form in the 10th Class as plural.

Nyumba, a hfmse / houses.

Nguku, a fowl ; fowls.

Nyama, meat; game.

Nguo, cloth, calico j' clothes.

Ndembo, an elephant, ivory; elephants.

Ngondolo, a sheep ; sheep.

Ngwena, a crocodile ; crocodiles.

Ng*ombe, an ox, a cow ; cattle.

Njota, thirst.

Ngongo, a staff; staffs.

Mbwa, a dog ; dogs.

Mbale, a plate; plates.

Mbeju, a plant ; plants, seeds.

Mbungo, toind.

Mbepo, cold.

Uti, a gun ; guns (or rifle).

Ula, rain.

Sala, hunger.

Note. - Nyumba sometimes takes majumba as its plural, par-
ticularly with reference to large houses. So also a few nouns of
other classes, especially the 7th and 11th ; e.g. chitendo (plural
matendo), " an action " ; lukongolo (plural ngongolo or makongolo),
" a leg."

Class XI. Class X.

Class Characteristic, LU. Class Characteristic, SI.

Nouns in lu- take their
plural in w- (or ny- before a
vowel), i.e. in Class X. This n
produces the usual euphonic
changes (see p. 8).

Luambi, a branch. Nyambi.

Luau, a net. Nyau.

THE NOUN

Lugomo, a lip.

Ngomo.

Lujuchi, a hee.

Nyuchi.

Lukalala, a basket.

Ngalala^

T.nkole, a verandah room.

Ngole.

Lukoloma, a trench.

Ngoloma.

Lukonji, a rope.

Ngonji.

Lukosyo, a tribal family.

Ngosyo.

Lukuju, a fig.

Nguju.

Lukwi, a pisce of firewood.

Ngwi.

Lusasu, a piece of firewood.

Sasu.

Lusambo, a wire.

Sambo.

Lusulo, a stream.

Sulo.

Luulo, a waier~pot.

Ulo.

Luumbo, a hair.

Umbo.

Lulimi, a tongue.

Ndimi.

Lupambai a kind of small ant.

Mbamba.

Lupiya, a shilling.

Mbiya, money.

Lunda, vjisdom.

31

Classes XII. and XIII. Any noun can be made into
a diminutive by changing its prefix into ka- singular, or
tu- plural. Occasionally the native prefers to use both
prefixes (i.e. ka- and the usual class prefix).

Class XIII.
Class Characteristic, KA.

Katela, a small tree,
Kaluambi, a small branch,
Kanache, a small child.

Class XII.

Class Characteristic, TU.

Tutela.

Tunyambi.

Twanache.

Class XIV. Nouns in w-. Those having an abstract
or collective meaning have no plural, others take their
plural in mor (Class VI.).

(Note that some nouns in u- belong to the 9th class, an n
having been dropped).

32

A TAO OBAMMAB

OT.AflS XIV.

Class VI.

Class Characteristic, U.

Class Characteristic, GA.

Ulalo, a bridge.

Maulalo.

UgOQO, a resd sleeping-mat.

Magono.

Utope, mud.

Matope.

U^asi, a miMhroom.

Ma^asi.

Uwou, pus.

Mawou.

Ukali, fierceiMSS, bravery.

Ukana, native beer (fermented).

Ukungwi, skill.

Ulusi, usi, threcid.

Umi, healthf life.

Unami, deceit, lies.

(Uchili).

Machili, strength.

Ugali, porridge.

Uganja, friendship.

Upile, good luck.

Utitili, fleas.

Class XV. The prefix KU- is used with two mean-
ings : —

(i) In the first of these it is prefixed to a verbal
stem, the latter remaining unchanged.^

Its equivalents in English are the Dative (Gerund) and
the Infinitive.

e.g. Ngusaka A;ulola, I want to look (i.e. ^^ I want
looking.^^)
Koga (ku-joga) nde kwamhone, Bathing is
good.

1 In this it differs from the other class prefixes ; when these
are used with a verbal stem the final a of the latter often
changes, usually to o, but sometimes to e or t. Those which
change to -o are usually instruments.

e,g, UgonOf ** a sleeping-mat " (from -gona).
Ghisogosiy " fruit " (from -sogola).
Chitumbilif " monkey " (from -tumbila).

THE NOUN 38

N,B. — Caxe must be taken in sentences like the first
of these examples that this dative refers to the subject
of the verb ; compare the following : —

Ngusaka ajaule, " I want them to go/' i.e. ** I
want that they should go." (Not ngwasaka
kwaula.)

Here the going does not refer to the subject *' I."

(ii) The second use of KU- is locative and will be
considered together with Classes XVI. and
XVII.

The Locative Prefixes.

These are identical with the locatives KU- PA- and
MU-, and are not used as noun prefixes. When prefixed
to a noun, however, they have the effect of transferring
it to their class and require their concords, not that of
the noun prefix proper : —

e.g, Nyumba jangu, my house.

hut Ku n> umba kwangu, to my house.

M'nyumba'muno mwambone, it is nice in this
house.

They may be used also to convert a verbal stem into
a noun, but only with the idea of place. Th6 possessive
is prefixed to the infinitive of the verb : —

Kwakoga (kwakujoga), a bathing place.
Mwakupikana magambo, a place for hearing
cases-at'law.

It will be noticed from the second example that these
fQrms though substantival, may yet retain the power of
possessing an object when formed from a transitive verb.

3

84 A YAO GBAMMAB

2. The Possessiveb of these nouns are : —

Class VII. Cha. Class VIII. Ya.

IX. Ja. X. Sya.

XI. Lua, Iwa. (X. Sya).

XIII. Ka. XII. Twa.

XIV. Wa. (VI. Ga).
XV. Kwa.

XVI. Pa.
XVII. Mwa.

3. The Adjectival Prefixes are according to rule (see

p. 26).

e.g. Chachiswela (chijuni), white (bird).
Syannandi (nyumba), small (houses).
Eakajipi (katela), short (tree).
Nyama josepe, all the meat.
Lukonji Iwambone, a good rope.

Note. — In the n class, the class characteristics ji and si are
often used in place of the class prefix n.

Thus : nyvmba jor-ji-kulungwa ^ *^& large

or nyumba ja-n-gulimgwa (jit-n-kulungwa) j house."

mhwa sya-si-nandi (or syenandi) ^
or mbwa syannandi (aychn-nandi) ) ^™*" Qogs.

Exercise 9. Translate into English : —

Itumbili yepiliyu; chipagala chosepe ; nyumba j a ma-
ganga; imanga yejipi; chipewa cha mchanda; litala
lyambone; libweta lyenandi ; majelagamasito; malowe
gamanami ; Una lyangalumbana ; lipende lyejumu ; mesi
gamasisisi ; mesi ga moto ; ngonji syejipi ; lunda luo-
jinji (Iwalujinji) ; mbamba syamnono; sasu syewisi;
umbo syasiswela ; luau Iwalusito ; ulalo woleu ; magono
gamtega ; ukali wojinji ; ugali wose ; matope gane;
kasiilo kane ; tuwanga twatujinji ; kagamba kakaswela ;
tubweta twatusito.

THE NOUN

35

Exercise 10. Translate into ChiYao : —

Much wealth; long pegs; a big hat; many years;
small paths ; a reed- mat for the verandah ; the truth
(good words) ; a white drake ; much ash ; green reeds ;
a male lion; good water; much sense; small baskets;
a wire rope ; dry firewood (pi.) ; the long hair of a Euro-
pean ; a strong bridge (of strength) ; cold porridge ; good
beer; all the mud; more good luck; a small house
(dim.) ;'^little bones (dim.) ; little baskets (dim.).

CHAPTER V.

THE VERB.

The verb consists of a stem and various prefixes and
suffixes attached thereto.
These prefixes are : —

(1) The subjective pronoun (connective).

(2) The objective pronoun (connective).

(3) The tense prefix or prefixes.

The commonest suflBx is -ga after final a, or -je (for -ge)
after final e. Apart from its occurrence in certain tenses,
of which it is a specific part (see pp. 71 and 107), this
suflBx may be added to any tense when it is desired to
indicate that the action is continuous or recurrent (see
also p. 41).

e.g, Akwisaga mo^a gosepe, he comes every day,
Talwaleje, he will continue to he ill.

Note. — The stem of the verb is liable to various changes in-
dicating tense, mood, etc.

1. The Subjective and Objective (connective) Pronouns.

These connective forms of the personal pronoun are
inseparable from the verb.

(a) Class I. The subjective forms are : —

n-, ni-, I.
(u-), (thou).
a-, he, she, or it (you).
tu-, we.

m-, mu-, mw-, you.
^a-i a-, they {he, you).

(36)

THE VERB 37

The Objective forms are : —

-n-, -ni-, me.
(-ku-), (thee).
-m-, him, her, it, you,

-tU-, U8.

-m-, -mu-, you,
-^a-, them (him, you),

(b) The subjective and objective connective pronouns
for other classes are the same as the class characteristics :
u, ji, si, etc.

Notes, .

(1) The second person Bingular is only used idiomatically (see
p. 45). It is never used with the meaning of " thou," " thee,"
except in speaking to children, or when it is intended to express
contempt or disparagement.

(2) Note that the only difference between the Subjective and
Objective forms is in the third person singular (excepting the
disused second person singular).

(3) The n of the first person singular causes the usual euphonic
changes both in the tense prefixes and in the stem of the verb.

ni- is only used as the subjective before an objective pronoun :—

e.g, tindole, I will look {not tinilole).
hut tinimlole, / will see him,
nimbweni, T have seen him.

(4) The third person (singular and plural) is often used for
politeness in place of the second person ; in such cases the per-
son referred to can only be ascertained by the context.

(5) The objective connective pronoun is always placed im-
mediately before the stem, i.e, after all other prefixes.

Examples : (-weni, <* has seen ") :—
a-tu-weni, he has seen us.
t^aweni (tu-^a-weni), we have seen them,
mbweni (nweni), / have seen.
^asiweni (mbwa), they have seen them (dogs).
mugaweni (majela), you have seen them (hoes),
(nyama) situ weni (the game) have seen us.
nigaweni (maganga), / have seen them (stones).

38 A YAO GRAMMAR

2. The Infinitive Mood.

This mood is formed by prefixing ku- to the stem : —

e,g. ku-wona, to see.

kuta^a, to bindy tie, build,

3. The. Indicative Mood.

(a) The Present Tense.

This tense is formed by prefixing the subjective (con-
nective) pronoun to the infinitive : —

nguwona (nkuwona), I see,
akuwona, he sees.
tukutaA^a, tve build.
mkutaA^a, you build.
^akuwona, they see.
jikuwona,
sikuwona, etc.

(b) The {immediate) Future Tense is formed by prefixing
the syllable ti-, ta-, or tu- to the pronoun and stem, the
final -a of the latter being changed to -e : —

tinda^e (ti-n-tawe), I will build.
tata^e (ta-a-ta^e), he will build.
tututa^e. we mil build.
timta^e, you will build.
tata^e, ta^ata^e, they will build.
tajiwone (mbwa), it (dog) will see.
tasituwone, they will see us.

Note. — The vowel of this tense prefix (<a-, etc.) changes ac-
cording to the demands of euphony, but considerable latitude is
observed, and it is not possible to frame a rule.

(c) The Present Perfect Tense.

This tense — and its derivatives — is very irregular and
the changes in the stem should be learnt empirically
for the present, together with each verb. The subject
has been dealt with fully later (see Chap. XVI.).

THE VERB 39

The tense is formed by prefixing the subjective pro-
noun to a modified stem.

The perfect form of the verb kuta'iba, " to build/' is
'taibile, hence : —

nda^ile (ntai^ile), I have built.
ata^lO) he has built.
tuta^le, we have built.
mta^le, you have built.
wata^ile, they have built.
uta^le, jita^le, sita^ile, etc.

The present perfect form of kuwona is -wenij hence :— ^

mbweni (nweni), I have seen.
aweni, he has seen.
tuweni, we have seen.
muweni, you have seen.
Avaweni, they have seen.
uweni, jiweni, siweni, etc.

(d) The Past, or Past Perfect Tense, is formed from the
present perfect by prefixing -a to the stem, i.e. between
it and the pronoun : —

naweni, I saw or 'had seen.
nata^le, I built or had built.
waweni, he saw or had seen.
wata^e, he built or had built.
twaweni, we saw or had seen.
mwaweni, you saw or had seen.
i^ata^le, they built or had built.
wata^le, jata^ile, syata^ile, etc.

Note. — It will be seen that the third person singular of this
tense has wa-, where one would expect a- ; this has evidently
been adopted so as to diflEerentiate between the present perfect
tense and the past. It must not be confused with the {ba- of
the third person plural.

40 A YA.0 GBAMMAB

4. The Subjunctive Mood.

This is formed by changing the final -a of the stem
into -e, and prefixing the subjective (connective) pro-
noun : —

ndai^e (nta^e), I may build, let me build.
awone, he may see, let him see,
tutai^e, iJbe m>ay build, let us build.
muwone, you may see,
ata^e, they m^y build, let them build,
uta^e, jita^e, sita^e, etc.

. Note, — In this tense the subjective pronoun is usually a-
instead of {ba-, in the 3rd person plural.

The introduction of the syllable- /ca- gives emphasis, or
indicates that action is to be carried out at a d. stance : —

ngata^e '\I must build, I may go and

(nkata^e)j build, etc,

akawone, he must see, let him go and see,

5. The Imperative Mood.

There are three forms in common use : —
(i) The simple stem : — taiba, " build."
The plural is formed by suffixing -ni : — taibani, '•* build

ye."

The continuative suffix -ga, when used, is inserted
immediately after the stem : taibagani, " continue to
build.^'

This is the only tense in which the continuative suffix
is infixed — elsewhere it always occurs at the end of the
word.

^ii) The subjunctive is used for politeness, and the
third person singular is used as often as the more direct
second person plural . —

ata^e, or mta^e, build,
akata^e mkatat^e,! ^^^^ ^^ ^^ j^.^
or mukata^e J

THE VERB 41

The continuative suffix may be added: —
atai^eje (not -ga), continue bmlding.

Note, — Idiomatically, this use of the continuative suflBx may
have a somewhat petulant significance, " Oh ! build if you want
to."

(iii) The letter n is sometimes prefixed to the sub-
jmictive third person singular : nataibe, " build."

There are other forms (nimlaibe, hwntaibe, kataibeni), but
they are not in common use.

6. In telling a story or in describing a series of actions
during conversation the proper tense form need only be
used for the first verb. All succeeding verbs of the
series, having the same subject and being of the same
tense as the first, may be replaced by the infinitive with
the syllable ne or nde (a form of na, " and ") prefixed to
it. Verbal stems having initial g ox k drop the ku of the
infinitive.

e.g. Wajawile ku musi, nekusosa mundu*jo, nekumsalila
malowe'go, negona; kundai^i nekuuja, He went to the
village^ sought out the man, gave the message and slept
{there) ; next morning he returned.

Vocabulary.

(The perfect form of verbs is given in brackets.)

kulola (-lolite), to look,
kutama (-temi}, to dt, stay, dwell,
kwika (-iche), to come,
kwisa (-jisile), to come.
kwaula (-jawile), to go,
kwenda (-jesile), to walk, go,
kusosa (-sosile), to look for, want.
kusaka (-sachile), to want.
kutenda (-tesile), to do.

42 A YAO GBAHMAB

kupita (-pite), to pass {go atoay ').

kwinjila (-jinjile), to enter.

kujigala (-jigele), to cari-y, bring,

kujiganya (-jigenye), to teach.

kulijiganya (-lijigenye), to learn,

ku^echeta (-^echete), to speak.

kusala (-sasile), to say,

kusalila (-salile), to tell.

ku^ilanga (-^lasile), to call, swnmon.

ku^alanga (-^alasile), to read, count,

kiilemba (-lembile), to write, mark.

kuwona (-weni), to see {think),

kuta^a (-ta^ile), to tie, hind, build,

kupela (-pesile), to he tired, to suppose,

kuganisya (-ganisisye), to think, consider.

kusakalika (-sakaliche), to he tired, be spoiled,

kwima (-jimi), to stand, to refuse,

kwimuka (-jimwiche), to get up,

kwimusya (-jimwisye), to rouse^ ^^call,"

kutyoka (-tyosile), to go away, start,

kutyosya (-tyoeisye), to take away,

kugona (-gonile), to lie down, sleep,

kuwala (-wete), to wear, put on {clothes).

kuwula (-wusile), to take off {clothes).

kukola (-kwete), to have, possess,

koga (-josile), to bathe.

kuchapa (-chapile), to wash {clothes).

kusigala (-sigele), to remain,

kupikana (-pikene), to hear, obey,

ku, from, to,

pa, ai, on.

mu, m', in.

kwa, for, to, from {a person).

^ The verb -pita is used in the sense of " go away " only in
the perfect tense, in speaking of a third person : apite, " he has
gone," in the sense of " he is no longer here," not referring to the
act of departure i)w,tyoka). Idiomatically, -p^ia is used in the
sense of the English " come in."

THE VERB 43

Notes, — (a) In verbs describing an action the present indicative
is often used where the present imperfect is used in English :
e.g. ngwaulay ** I am going."

There is a present imperfect tense in ChiYao (see Chapter
X.), but it is used when it is desired to emphasise the incom-
pleteness of the action ; as we say in English, " I am looking
for it," in reply to a demand, " Why don't you look for it ? " or
" Have you found so-and-so ? "

(6) In verbs describing a condition, as oppiosed to an action,
the present perfect is used where the present indicative is
employed in English : —

e.g, mbesile (npesile), I am tired {not ngupela).

ndemi (ntemi), I am sittmg down {not ngutama).

(c) The expression "come and do so and so" and similar
constructions, are rendered by putting both verbs in the sub-
junctive : —

e.g. mjise mlole, come and look.

mjimuche msale, get up and say.
mjaule mkamsalile, go atid tell him.

Exercise 11. Translate into English : —

Ngusosa ; ngwaula ; ngwisa ; akutenda ; wakwinjila;
mkuwecheta ; ngumsalila ; akunyiganya ; tukusiwala ;
wakupela; alole; ndole; mbilanje; ambilanje; ajime;
mukachape; apite; tingone; tawale; tindyoche; tini-
mbilanje ; tinyoje ; tutuwalanje ; tiiche ; tajinjile ; tisache ;
nyawile ; mbechete ; ndolite ; mbesile ; atyosile ; tuwete ;
sijimwiche; gatemi; nimjigenye; amsalile; wasichapile;
sakaliche ; nijitawile ; namjimwisye ; t^ivrawusile ; waweni ;
twambilasile ; nagasosile; twachitesile ; akalole; muka-
chape; mkambilanje ; akasoseje ; ajauleje; jaulagani;
jigalani; nalole; naiche; sigalagani; awaleje; asigaleje.

Exercise 12. Translate into ChiYao ^ : —

I see ; I am coming (I come) ; they stand ; we are lying
down ; I am going ; I want them ; I want to see him {inf.) ;

* In this and succeeding exercises, words in square brackets
[thus] are not to be translated.

44 A YAO GBAMMAR

I am going to call him ; he is learning ChiYao ; let him
look ; let them remain ; you may go ; they may lie
down ; let me get up ; you must write ; he must wash
them [clothes] ; you may go and look ; let me go and call
him ; he will remain ; I will bring it [plate] ; we will come ;
they will go ; you will say ; I have looked ; he has come ;
I am tired (per/.) ; they have learnt ; it [lion] has gone ;
they [goats] entered ; we sat I spoke ; I went ; we
bathed ; he called me ; we saw them [cattle] ; they [birds]
went away ; take away the plate ; write them [words] ;
call him ; go and bathe ; come and sit down ; stand up.

CHAPTER VI.
THE PRONOUN.

1. The Pebsonal Pronoun (relating to the first and
second classes only).

The subjective and objective forms of the personal
pronoun are the same.

une, J, me.
(ugwe), {thou, thee),
uwe, we, U8.
umwe, you.

It will be noticed that there are no personal pronouns for
the third person singular or plural. The demonstrative pro-
nouns proper to the first class {ajo, sing., a-Cbo, plur.) are used in
their stead.

These forms may be combined with the preposition na
or ni, " and," " with '' : —

none (naune), and I, with me.
najo, and he, with him {or her).
nowe (nauwe), and we, with us.
nomwe (naumwe), and you, with you.
na^o, and they, with them.

Notes, -(i) The third person, singular or plural, is frequently
used for the second person, occasionally even the demonstrative
kweleko (" there ") : e.g. Tamlipe'mwe wani ? " Who is going to pay
you ? '' Wao or Ktoeleko, " You (are)."

(ii) Idiomatically the personal pronoun, 2nd person singular,
is used where in English we should say " one " (see example,
App. VII.).

(46)

46 a yao grammab

2. The Possessive Pronoun.

These are formed by prefixing the class characteristic
to the following stems : —

-angu, my.

(-ako), {thy).

-akwe, his, hers {your).

-etu, our,

-enu, your.

-ao, their {your).

e.g. chipewa changu, my hat.
lijela lyenu, your hoe.
^andu ^ao, their {his, your) people.
mate gakwe, its meaning.

. 3. The Demonstrative Pronouns.

There are three adjectival forms, two {this, that) re-
ferring to near objects, and the otheT{that), to distant
ones.

(i) "This."

The syllable a- is prefixed to the class characteristic : —

. Class I. aju Class • II. a^a
III. au IV. aji

V. ali VI. aga.

etc., etc.

(ii) "That" (near) is formed from the preceding by
changing the final vowel into -o, except -li and -si, which
become -lyo and -syo.

Class I. ajo Class II. a^o

III. awo IV. ajo

V. alyo VI. ago
etc., etc.

m

THE PBONOITN 47

Na (" and," *' with ") may be prefixed to these forme —
e.g. na^o, nasyo, nago, etc., and they, with them.
najo, nawo, nalyo, etc., and he (it), with him (it).

Similarly, the copula ndi (see pages 71-72).

e.g. ndijo, it is he.
ndi^o, it is they,
ndicho, it is it, etc.

And with the personal pronouns —

ndine, it is I.
(ndigwe), it is thou.
ndiwe, it is we.
ndimwe, it is you.

(iii) " That " (distant).

The syllable -la is suffixed to the first form (" this ") : —

Class I. ajula Class II. at^ala
III. aula IV. ajila

V. alila VI. agala

etc., etc.
All these adjectival forms follow the noun they qualify.

Notes.— (a) The initial vowel is usually dropped when these
forms follow a noun : —

eig, mundu*ju, for mundu aju.
mbwa'sila, for mbwa asila.

In such instances the accent is usually postponed so that in
the preceding example the stress would be transferred from the
mM of " mundu " to the d-w, as if " mundu^ju " were one word.

(6) These forms are sometimes reduplicated for the sake of
emphasis : —

e.g, aju mundu'ju, this man.
aga'majela'gala, those hoes.

(c) The demonstratives agreeing with Classes XV., XVI., and
XVII., ahu, aha, dkulaf apa, a/po, apala, amu, amo, amula, are
equivalent to " here," " there," " in there."

(For other forms of the demonstrative see page 58.)

48 A YAO GBAMMAR

4. When a locative (ku^ pa\ mu) precedes a noun and
a demonstrative, the latter always takes the concord of
the locative rather than that of the noun : —

e,g. m'nyumba 'muno, in this house {not m'nyumba
'jino).

pa lusulo^pala, at that stream {not pa lusulolula).

Vocabulary.

mnope, mlope, very,

kusyene, very.

kusyesyene, extremely.

kuti {c<yaj.\ that, so that.

akuQO, apano, here.

kweleko, pelepo, there.

elo, yes.

kwali, kwalini, / donH know, perhaps.

ngwamba, no.

samb&no, now.

nombe na-^o, -jo, -syo, etc., also.

^na, {indicates a question).

nipo, ni na, and.

naga, anaga, nawa, if.

chichi ? what f

-chi {vnth noun), what ? which ? {adjectival.)

-api {with class characteristic)y what ? which ? {adjectival.)

kwapi ? where ?

nambo, hut, except, though

basi ! enough !, that is all.

Exercise 13. Translate into English : —

(1) Ana umwe mkwaula kwapi? Ngwaula ku lusulo,
nyoje. (2) Ajo nyumba'jo jambone kusyene. Elo, ja-
mbone, nambo ajila jambone nombe najo. (3) Ngusaka
kuchapa nguo syangu. Chambone {all right), nambo
mkachape sine sya Msungu nombe nasyo. (4) M\mdu*ju
akusosa masengo. Naga akwete chikalata chambone,
tinimlembe. (5) Naiche akuno, umwe, ndole chikalata

THE PBONOUN 49

chenu. Ngwamba, bwana, chikalata chakwe changa-
lumbana ; juamtega aju. Basi ajauleje. (6) Ngusaka
kuwona mbwa jenu. Mbwa'chi? Jajipiliyu'jo, mbikene
kuti jambone mnope. None ngwete mbwa, jajinandi
nambo. (7) Ana umwe, mkusaka chichi ? Naiche nim-
lole umwe. Chambone, ambweni une ; sambano chichi ?
Nyauleje? Elo, jaulagani. (8) Nasachile wandu wane
ajigale mikeka 'ji, nambo wosepe wajawile ku migunda.
Mjaule ku musi kwa mwenye, mumsalile kuti ngusaka
achachanda wane, ajijigale. Elo, tinyaule.

Exercise 14. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1)1 saw your cattle in my garden. They have gone
now. (2) This man [is] a fool. He comes here every
day. What does he want? I don't know. (3) Carry
this basket. Tell the other man to carry it {subj.)y I am
tired. If you are tired, you may remain here but I shall
tell the master {tr. European). (4) This Banyan [is] a
bad [man]. He wants me to go and wash {subj,) his
tslothes, but I think that he should call (suhj.) his boy to
wash them (subj:) (5) What are you doing there ? I am
writing a letter to my sister. (6) Call me when the
bugle sounds (pepenga). I want to get up and bathe at
(ku) the river. All right, I will call you. (7) I hear
{pres. perf,) that you are going away. Yes, I am going
to see my brother-in-law. (8) These people have
brought some mats for you to look at (subj.). Tell them
to come in (apite). These mats [are] no good, [they are
too] small. Take them away.

CHAPTER VII.
THE NEGATIVE TENSES OP THE VERB.

The negative syllable in general is nga (ngej ng% ngu),
prefixed as a rule to the pronoun and stem of the verb.^

The vowel of the negative syllable (nga) changes in
accordance with the demands of euphony.

1. The Present Indicative (Negative).

This is formed by prefixing the syllable ^iga-, ngi-j etc.,
to the positive form : —

ngengusaka, ngingusaka, or ngongusaka, J c^ not want

ngakusaka (nga-akusaka), he does not want

ngetukusaka, we do not want,

ngimkusaka, you do not want,

ngakusaka, ngat^akusaka, they do not want,

nguukusaka, ngajikusaka.

ngasikusaka, etc.

2. The Future (Negative) is formed by prefixing the
negative syllable to the subjective pronoun and (un-
modified) stem : —

ngindola (ngi-n-lola), I mil not look,
ngalola, he will not look,
ngetulola, we vnll not look,
ngimlola, you will not look,
ngalola, nga^alola, they will not look.
nguulola, ngajilola.
ngasilola, etc.

1 There are two exceptions — the negative forms of the sub-
junctive mood and of the relative tenses, q.v,

(60)

THE NEGATIVE TENSES OF THE VERB 51

A more emphatic negative is obtained by the use of
ngasa- {ngisi-, etc.) in place of the simple negative syllable.

3. The Present Perfect, Past Perfect, and Past
{Negative).

There is only one negative for these tenses. It is
formed by prefixing ngana- {ngim-, ngunu-, etc.) to the
subjective pronoun and (unmodified) stem : —

ngininyoga (ngini-n-joga), I have not bathed or

did not bathe,
nyanajoga, he did not bathe, etc.
nganitujoga, we did not bathe, etc.
nganimjoga, you did not bathe, etc.
nganai^ajoga, | ^^^ ^.^ ^^ ^^^^^ ^^^
nganajoga, )
ngunuujoga,
nganijijoga,
nganisijoga, etc.

As in all the tense prefixes, no general rule can be laid down
as to the euphonic changes taking place in the vowels. The
forms given above are, however, those most generally used.

4. The Subjunctive (Negative) is formed by prefixing
ka to the (unmodified) stem of the verb, and adding
the subjective pronoun :— ^

ngawona (n-ka-wona), I may not see, let me not see.

akawona, he m^y not see, etc.

tukawona, we may not see, etc.

mkawona, you may not see.

akawona, ^akawona, they m^y not see, etc.

ukawona, jikawona,

sikawona, etc.

This syllable ka becomes kasa if emphasis be desired,
e.g. akasawona, tukasawona.

^ See also p. 109.

52 A TAO GBAMMAR

Note, — The Negative Subjunctive must be carefully distin-
guished from the emphatic positive form, which has, of course,
a diametrically opposite meaning. The emphatic negative
{"kasa-) should be used by the beginner to avoid confusion.

c/. akalole with akalola

ngajaule with ngajaula, etc.

5. The Imperative {Negative),

There is no negative form of this mood, the negative
subjunctive being used, e.g. mkajimay "don't stand";
mkasajimusya, " don't call,'' etc.

6. The Relative Tense (Present),

(a) The Positive is formed by prefixing the possessive
(jua-y wa-, ja-, etc.) to the Infinitive. It has the meaning
ti — who {or which) does so-and-so": e.g. mundujuaku-
wecheta^ " a man who speaks ; " ngwena syakukamula
wandu, " crocodiles which seize people."

{h) The Negative of this tense is formed by prefixing
-nga- to the stem of the verb, preceded by the Possessive :
e.g. mundu juangapikanaj "a man who does not hear"
(hence, " a disobedient man ") ; majela gangalumbana,
" hoes which are not good" {i.e, " bad hoes ").

Note, — This tense is greatly used in Yao where, in English,
we should use a negative Participle, e.g. ibandu {bangaika . , .,
" the people not coming . . .;" mitela jangagwa , . ., "trees not
falling . . ."

ExEBCiSE 15. Translate into English : —

Ngongupikana ; ngakwisa ; ngetukoga ; ngakupita ;
mkajinjila; akawilanga; ngasigala ; tukajima ; aka-
wecheta; akasalemba; mkasaganisya ; akasajoga; ngi-
nyaula ; ngajimuka ; ngimsala ; ngutusalila ; nganapela ;
ngeninyimuka ; nganitutyoka ; nganimtyosya ; wandu
wangapikana ; wanache wakulijiganya ; achachanda
wakujigala; nyama syangagona.

THE NEGATrVB TENSES OF THE VEKB 53

Exercise 16. Translate into ChiYao : —

I do not teach ; he does not speak ; we do not see ;
you do not hear {or obey) ; they do not come ; don't let
me see ; don't let him speak ; don't speak ; let us not go ;
don't go ; I will not bathe ; he will not want ; we shall
not go ; you will not tell ; they will not speak ; I did not
think; he did not hear; we did not go; they did not
come; the boy who is reading; the game which is pass-
ing ; the woman who does not refuse ; people who do not
come.

Vocabulary.

lumembe (11), a fly.
njenjema (9), a mosquito.
katundu (pi. akatundu, ndundu), a load,
chisogosi (7), fruit.
mpunga (3), rice.

mapemba (6), sorghum (a Izind of millet).
atati (2), father, uncle, etc.
amao (2), mother, aunt.
achikulu-wangu (2), my mother.
achikulu-wakwe (2), his mother.
akulu (2) elder brother.
-gwe {suffixed to names of relations), his.
. atatigwe, his father.
achimwene (2), elder brother, sir, chief.
ambuje (2), grandfather, grandmother, master.
mpwanga (1), my younger brother.
mpwenu (1), your younger brother.
mpwao (1), his, their younger brother.
kwangali, pangali, there is not,
-pali, -kuli {with CI. Char.), there is, there are.
kumanyilila (-manyilile), to know, understand.
kukombola, kupakomlx)la (-kombwele), to be able.
kuuta (-utile), to pull.
kututa (-tut lie), to push.
kulya (-lile), to eat.
kung'wa (-ng'wele), to drink

54 - A TAO GBAMMAB

kuutuka (-utwiche), to nm,

kutila (-tisile), to run away.

kogopa (-jogwepe), to fear, he afraid,

kogoya (-jogweye), to frighten, he frightful,

mkati (mu), inHde,

kusa (ku)^ pasa (pa), outside.

kusi (ku), pasi (pa), helow, under, on the ground.

kwinani (ku), penani (pa), ahove, over,

pachanya (pa), on top of,

pesi (pa), across (a stream, road, etc.)

pasyeto (pa), kusyeto (ku), on the other side of {an ohstckcle,

e.g, house, hill),
iyoyo, thus,
ligongo, hecause.
ligongo chichi ? why ?
menema, therefore,
mele, melepe, on pu/rpose,
^ani ? who ?

Exercise 17. Translate into English : —

(1) Ajigale yakulya; Msungu akwilan^a yakulya.
Chambone, tiiche nayo. (2) Ligongo chichi mkutama
pasi'po.^ Ana nganimjogopa? Ngajogope chichi? (3)
Ngimkumanyilila kuti Msungu akwete mbwa jangu-
lungwa? Elo,^ ngininimanyilila, sambano tindile. Eh!
mbesile kumjogoya'mwe ! (4) Wandu wajawile kwapi?
Watemi pasa. Ngusaka atute galeta, anyigale une
tujaulekuZomba. (5) Chambone, tiniwawilanje. Mundu
juine nganaika, nambo mpwao asalile une kuti ajawile
kulola achikulu-wakwe. (6) Akuno kogoya, njenjema
syejinji: nginingona kose^; tinyaule gona^ kwine. (7)
Tajaule kwapi? Kwalini, ngongumanyilila. Ligongo

* See page 60.

■ Kose {ku-ose) is used only with a negative tense ; it has its
equivalent in the English ** at all " — " I did not sleep at all."

' The ku of the Infinitive is often dropped, especially in verbs
beginning in g or h

THE NEGATIVE TENSES OF THE VERB 55

pesi naweni kuti membe syejinji. Elo, mate gakwe
ng'ombe'syo sya mwenye. (8) Ana mkulya chichi akuno ?
Yejinji, ugali wa chimanga ni mapemba, mpunga, isogosi,
— tukulya kusyene. (9) Nambo akuno kwan ali somba.
Elo, kwangali, nambo ku nyasa. Menema lyuwa line
tinyaule kwa achimwene, nisisose. (10) Amsalile wani
kuti 'ngVe mesi'go? Mkunyogoya chichi? njota jang-
wete,^ nginingVa mesi genu mele, mbesile kuti ga wandu
ali wose.

Exercise 18. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1) What are you running away [for]? I was afraid
[of] the European. I hear that [he is] very fierce {tr. of
fierceness very). (2) Who told you that [he is] fierce ?
The people of the village on the other side [of the hiil]
yonder told me [so]. [It is] not true (tr. lies), [he is] a
good man, that [one]. (3) This tree [is] very heavy, we
cannot carry it. Some [of you] pull and others push,
you will be able [to do it] thus. (4) Run and bring a
a hoe. You will find one (tr. it) on the top of the big box
in my house ; that [is] my house over there across the
stream. (5) I am afraid to enter your house. All right,
stand outside and tell those who are {tr. sit) inside that
you want my hoe. (8) Put that pole (chitela) on the
ground and come here. What shall I do now? Sit
down (pasi)^ I want to tell you something (chindu), (7)
Do you understand (pikana) ChiYao. No, I cannot speak
(inf.) it, but I am learning. (8) Who is teaching you?
The {tr, that) capitao who comes here every day. I have
not seen him.

* Not Nakwete njota. Similarly, Sala jingwete, ** I am hungry " ;
Sala jamkwete^ " he was hungry."

CHAPTER VIIL

1. The Vebb {continued).

(i) The " Not yet " Tense— Present Perfect.
This is formed from the Negative past by changing the
final a into e : —

e,g, ngininimbone, I have not yet seen him, or before I

see him,
nganajaule, he has not gone yet, or before he goes.

(ii) The " Not yet " Tense— Past.

This consists of the Pronoun, the prefix -kana- (-Wm-,
etc.), the pronoun again, and finally the stem, the final a
of the latter becoming e : —

e.g. akanajaule (a-kana-a-jaule), he had not yet gone, or

before he went.
ngininiiche, I had not yet corns, or before I came.
tukanatumanyilile, before we knew.

Examples : —

natyosile akanauje, / had left before he came back.
wakanaiche Wasungu, before the Europeans came.
jikanajitande ngondo, before the war commenced.

2. The Pronoun {continued).

(i) An emphatic form of the Personal Pronoun is ob-
tained either by suffixing -ji to the simple form, or by
reduplicating the last syllable : —

e.g. uneji, umweji,^ etc. ) I myself, you

.}

unene, umwemwe, etc. j yourself, etc.

^ Or umwejo.
(56)

VBEB AND PRONOUN 57

(ii) The Reflexive form is represented by -syene, prefixed
by the class characteristic in all classes except the first,
which takes the following forms : —

namsyene, myself.

msyene, asyene, himself.

tusyene, twasyene, "^ 7

\ , '^ ' > ourselves.

twachimsyene, J

mwasyene, 1 ,. ,

; , ' } yourself, yourselves.

mwachimsyene, J

asyene, achimsyene, themselves.

Other classes — usyene, jisyene, sisyene, etc.

Note. — Asyene has also the meaning of " the owner,"
" master " ; hence asyene musi means " the headman of the
village ; " kusyene, " very," has a similar derivation.

(iii) The simple Possessive Pronoun {-cmgu^ -etu, etc.)
may be made more emphatic by suffixing the Personal
Pronoun : —

-angune (-angu-une), my own.
-etuwe (-etu-uwe), our own.
-enumwe (-enu-umwe), your own.

These forms are used, idiomatically, with the pre-
positions ku, pa, and mu, instead of the Personal Pro-
noun : —

e.g. kwangune, to me.
petuwe, at us.

(iv) The initial vowel of the Personal Pronoun is often
elided after a verb, and the accent may thus be post-
poned : —

e,g. wambutile'ne {for wambutile une), he hit me.
^atuweni'we {for watuweni uwe), they saw us.

(v) An euphonic g is often prefixed to the Possessive
Pronoun after titles of relationship : —

58 A TAO GBAMMAB

e.g. atatigwenu, your father,
mlumbugwao, their sister.

The plural form, without this g, is, however, more
polite.

3. The Demonstrative Pronoun {continued).

In addition to the adjectival forms already given (page
46), there are several forms of the true Demonstrative
Pronoun. Thjese are formed as follows : —

(i) The simple Demonstrative, like the adjectival, has
three forms, expressing degrees of proximity.

The near demonstrative " this one " is formed by pre-
fixing the Possessive to 'ile- ( = -ele-) and suffixing the
class characteristic^: —

Ju-ele-ju {jua-ile-ju), ibeleiba, weleu, jeleji syelesi, chelechd,
yelei, etc.

" That one " (near) is obtained by changing the final
vowel of the above form into o ^ ; —

Jiielejo, ibeleibOy welewo, jelejOy syelesyo, chelecho, yeleyo, etc.

[Hence : kweleko, pelepo, mwelemo, " there " (that
place).]

The distant " that one (over there) " consists of the
Possessive prefixed to i ( = e), the class characteristic,
and finally the syllable 4a : —

Juejula (jua-i-jula), ibewalay weula^ jejila, syesila,
chechilaj etc.

[Hence : kwekula, pepala, mwemulay " there " (yonder).]
An adjectival form, derived from the above, is some-
times heard; in this, the pronoun is split, part being
prefixed to the noun, and part suffixed : —

^ The final syllable is often dropped (e.g. juele' for jv^leju or
juelejo ; kwele\ for kweleku or kwelekoj etc.) ; a rising inflexion
indicates distance, a falling one proximity : kwey, " over there ; "
hveU, "here."

VERB AND PRONOUN 69

e.g. jue'mundu'ju, this man.
je'nyumba'jila, that house.
Bye' mbusi'syo, those goats.

(ii) The simple adjectival form reduplicated giveB the
meaning *• this same one " : —

Ajuju, aibaiba, auu, ajiji, asisi, achichi, aii, alili, agaga,
etc.

[Hence : akuku, apapa, amumu, " this same place."]
** That same one " (near) is formed in a similar manner,

except that the class characteristic replaces the

initial a : —

Jujojo (or jiiejojo), 'Q)aibo'(bo, uwowo, jijojo^ sisyosyo,
chichochoj etc.

[Hence : kukoko (or ukoko)^ papopo, m*moino, " that same
place."]
In the third, distant, form, the initial a is dropped :■ —

Julajula, jilajila, etc., " that same one."

[Hence : palapala, kulakula, mulamula, " that same
place."]

(iii) The adjectival form "this" with the suflBx -fto
gives the meaning " this here " : —

Ajuno, atbanOf aunOy ajino, asinOy achino, aino, alinOy
agano, etc.

[Hence : akuno, apano, amuno, here.]

This fdrm may be used adjectively, e.g. mtela 'uno,
this tree here ; majela'gano, these hoes here.

Another form, which may be used either adjectively,
in which case it is split, or pronominally, is : —

JuejunOj {be^afio, weuno, jejino, syesino, chechinoy etc., this
one here.

60 A YAO GRAMMAR

e.g, Wandu ^api ? We^ano, Which people ? Tliese
here,
Ge* mowa' gano, These days (now-a-days,)

[Similarly — kwekuno, pepano, mwemuno, this place here.]

4. Assent and Dissent.

It should be noted that a Yao, in reply to a negative
question, will say " Yes," where in English we say " No,"
and vice versa : —

e.g, nganimbona ? did you not see him ?
elo, yes (I did not).
nganaiche ? has he not come yet ?
elo, yes {he has not),
nganapikana ? didn't you understand ?
elo, yes {I didn't).

So also : nganaiche ? has he not come yet ?

ngwamba, aiche katasi, no {you are wrong), he
came some time ago,

6. The Locative ku- may be used with the Gerund (p. 32)
when the action is to be carried out at a distance : —

e,g, ajawile kukuchijigala, he has gone to bring it,
tinyaule kukoga, I will go and bathe,

*
Exercise 19. Translate into English : —

(1) Nganapite; nganinyaule; nganituwawone ; nga-
nimtende ; ngininiwawilanje. (2) Akanawechete ; tukana-
tulembe ; nginisalile ; nganinimsalile ; mkanamjiganye ;
wakanawajoje. (3) Namsyene; jeleji; syelesi; gelego;
lyelelyo; ajiji; agaga; lilyolyo; kukoko; papopo; gagogo;
alino ; agano ; asino. (4) Jilajila ; kwekuno ; palapala ;
Iweluno.

VBRB AND PBONOUN 61

Exercise 20. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1) I have not yet eaten; he is not tired yet; they
have not got up yet ; we have not yet put on our clothes.
(2) Before they ran away ; before you called me ; before
we went; before they [game] passed; before it [dog]
entered. (3) Ourselves ; this one [child] ; that one
[child] ; these [houses] ; those [hoes] ; that [soil] (4)
These same reeds; the father himself; that same ox;
the real rainy season (tr. itself) ; this man here ; these
hoes here. (5) Those same [oxen] ; in this very place ;
to that same place over there ; these same [houses] here.

Vocabulary.

ichenene, uchenene, well, nicely,

ku^andika (-^andiche), to be near, easy,

ku^ndichila (-^andichile), tg come near,

kwa-, pa-ku^andika, near.

kutalika (-taliche), to be far, difficult.

kwakutalika, far.

kwanaula, far.

kumbujo, in the future.

kumbujo (ku), ahead, beyond, in front.

kunyuma (ku), panyuma (pa), in the rear, behind.

panyuma pakwe, afterwards, later.

pangaka^a, soon.

kunonopa (-nonwepe), to be hard, difficult.

kuuwa (-uwile), to die.

kwasa (-jasile), to throw away, lose.

kwasika (-jasiehe), to be lost, to be dead.

kutuma (-tumile), to send (a person),

kutumisya (-tumisye), to send (a thing).

kupeleka (-peleche), to convey, conduct.

kumala (-masile), to finish, end.

kumalisya (-malisye), to finish (trans.).

kupa (-pele), to give to {with obj. pronoun).

kuja (-jile), to go.

kuteka (-techile), to draw {water).

chitema, quickly.

62 A TAO GRAMMAR

chi^ela, the same as before.

chalumo, yalumo, the same,

mpela, like, as if,

yati'ii^ such things as these.

-li {with cl, char.), is, are (describing a condition),

ni, no, is, are (identity)',

-a chi ? (with cl, char.), what sort off

kumangw-etu, -enu, -ao, our, your, their home,

ExERcrsE 21. Translate into English :— -

(1) Ana atati wakwe ajasiche? Elo, wauwile waka-
naiche Wasungu. Wani ajinjile Una (tr, succeed) ?
Mpwao CheJuma. (2) Ngusaka kutuma mundu ni
chikalata'cho, achipeleche kwa Msungu. Chikalata'chi ?
Chelecho, chili pa teblo (table), (3) Chambone, nambo
wandu wajile kukuteka mesi. Ana wajawile wo-
sepe? Juine ajile ku flaso, juine nganaiche. Mtume
juine jua kumangwenu. (4) Ana mkalo wenu uli
kwapi? Ujasiche. Nganimkola upile umweji, mwau-
jasile kwapi? Pasyeto'pala, kumangwao achimwene.
(5) Nguwona kuti ChiYao chikunonopa, ligongo wandu
ngakuwecheta ichenene, none ngongupikana malowe
gao. (6) Nambo mkulijiganya chitema, timpakombole
kupikana 'chenene pangakawa. (7) Akatundu ali kwapi ?
Ali kumbujo'ko, nawaweni watemi pasi. Ana mwaweni
wosepe? Ngininiwawalanga, nambo ngonguwona kuti
wane ali munyuma, ligongo akogopa lyuwa; tajende
chitema. (8) Ngusaka kuti amale kutawa tenti, uweji
nganituiche, ligongo mbesile nipo ngusaka koga. (9)
Mate gakwe chichi mkutenda yatili? Ligongo chichi
ngimkumalisya masengo genu 'chenene mpela ajuno?
Ana mkuganisya kuti timbe umwe mbiya chalumo ?

Exercise 22. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1) Have you finished that work? What work? I
told you to go and draw water from the river, and pour

VEEB AND PRONOUN 63

it on the vegetables (mbeju) in the garden. (2) I did not
understand. I will call the workers now. All right, but
you must finish quickly, because I want you to do some-
thing else afterwards. (3) Take this letter to the Banyan.
You must run, as I want the calico soon. But it is a
long way to the Banyan's. Yes I know. Go on. (4)
Has that man gone ? Not yet (tr, no, he has not gone
yet). I told him to go before I had eaten. Yes, but he
says he is tired. Send him home. (5) Have the people
not finished building (in/.) their house? No (tr, yes),
they have gone to bring reeds. (6) Where is the head-
man ? He ran away [in-] to the bush. Why does he do
such things as this? I don't know. I suppose he is
afraid. (7) The work is not finished yet. Go and look
yourself. (8) Don't throw away those reeds. Which
reeds? These, here. I want them though. (9) What
do you want to do with them ? I shall give them to my
sister. (10) All right, you may take them.

CHAPTER IX.

NUMERALS.

1. Numbers are counted in fives, and tens; this has
arisen from the habit of using the fingers for this
purpose.

Of the cardinal numl^ers, two (4 and 5) are invariable ;
the others (1, 2, and 3) prefix the class characteristic of
the noun to which they refer ; likumi (10) is treated as a
noun.

The Cardinal Numbers are: —

1. -mo.

2. -wilL ■

3. -tatu.

4. mcheche.

5. msano.

6. msano na (ni) -mo.

7. msano na -wili.

8. msano na -tatu.

9. msano na mcheche.

10. likumi. |

11. likumi kwisa {or na, ni) -mo. I

12. likumi kwisa -wili. I
16. likumi kwisa msano na -mo.

20. makumi gawili.
23. makumi gawili na -tatu.
27. makumi gawili kwisa msano na -wili.
30. makumi gatatu.

36. makumi gatatu kwisa msano na -mo.

(64)

NUMEBAIiS 65

40. makumi mcheche.

60. makumi msano na limo.

73. makumi msano na gawili kwisa -tatu.

78. makumi msano na gawili kwisa msano na -tatu.

99. makumi msano na mcheche kwisa msano na

mcheche.
100. lichUa.
126. licbila kwisa makumi gawili kwisa msano na

-mo.
389. machila gatatu kwisa makumi msano na ga-
tatu kwisa msano na mcheche.

Examples.

libweta limo, 1 box.

nguku sitatu, 3 fowls.

majela msano na limo, 6 hoes,

nyumba likumi, 10 houses,

^andu likumi kwisa msano na jumo, 16 people,

ijuni makumi gawili kwisa msano na mcheche, 29

birds,
nyambi makumi msano na gatatu kwisa msano na

lumo, 86 branches.
mikwamba lichila kwisa jitatu, 103 fathoms.
misi machila msano na gatatu, 800 villages,
ngalala machila likumi kwisa machila mcheche kwisa

makumi msano na gawili kwisa lumo, 1471 bankets,

Notes,^a) It will be seen that both the tens and hundreds
take the plurals and concords proper to their own class (the 5th
and 6th), and do not take the concord of the substantive which
they enumerate.

(6) Where the last digit is one or six, the numeral -mo agrees
with the singular of the substantive qualified.

(e) There is no rule as to the use of the conjunctions " hwisa,**
"na" and "m," but the expedient adopted above, of using

5

66 A YAO GRAMMAB

" kwiaa " to divide the tens from the hundreds, etc., in contra-
distinction to closely associated numbers, is recommended.

{d) Some nouns, though singular in meaning, have a plural
prefix ; these require a plural prefix to qualifying parts of speech,
not excepting -wo (** one ") : —

e,g. machila gamo, one machila,

^akongwe ^amo {poliU form)^ one woman,

2. The Adverbial Numerals are formed from the pre-
ceding by prefixing ka : —

e,g. kamo, once (kamokamo, occasionally),
kawili, ttoice (kawilikawili, often),
kachechej four times..
kasano na kawili, seven times.
kakumi, ten times,

3. The Ordinal Numbers may be expressed in two
ways : —

(i) By prefixing the plural class characteristic (appropri-
ate to the noun qualified) to the number, and connecting
it with the noun by means of the singular possessive, also
in agreement with the noun : —

e,g, lyu^a lya gatatu, the third da/y (or lyuiba
lya^tatu),
mwesi wa mcheche, the fourth month.

(ii) By connecting the adverbial form vdth the noun
by means of the possessive : —

e,g. lyu^a lya katatu, the third day,

mwesi wa kacheche, the fourth month,

4. "First" is expressed by the Relative Tense of the
verb kutanda (" to begin ") : —

e,g, nyumba jakutanda, the first house, etc.

NXTMBBALS 67

" Last" is expressed by the Relative Tense of the verb
kumalicJdsya ("to finish" — intensitive form).

e.g. masengo gakumalichisya, ^^^JnaZjo^.
lilo^e lyakumalichisya, the last word.

Vocabulary.

njelwa (9), a brick.

msela (3), a line.

msaku (3), a hag.

litumbi (5), a hill, a mountmn.

msika (3), a market

mwanda, a great number (^^uncountable"),

lelo, to-day,

inala^i, to-morrow.

mtondo, the day after to-nuyrrow.

liso, yesterday,

lijusi, the day before yesterday,

lijusi'Iila, the other day, some days ago.

kunda^i, in the morning.

kunda^i kwakwe, next morning.

ligulo, the evening,

musi, the day time.

chile, at night.

winji (indeclinahle), too many, very many.

wipi, too shorty very short.

-lingwa? (with cl. char.), how many?

uli ? how ? what ?

-pe (attached to a noun), only,

kukumbuchila (-kumbuchile), to remember.

kukumbusya (-kumbwisye), to remind,

kwasima (-jasime), to lend, borrow,

kwitichisya (-jitichisye), to assent, to agree.

kukana (-kanile), to refuse,

kuulaga (-uleje), to kill.

kusyo^elela (-syo^elele), to be accustomed to, to be in the

habit of,
kuputa (-putile), to strike, beat
kupunda (-pundile), to excel, exceed,
^ kuuja (-usile), to retu^^.

€8 A YAO GRAMMAR

Exercise 23. Translate into English : —

(1) Misela jitatu; misaku msano na mcheche; ngo-
ndolo msano ni siwili ; majela likumi kwisa limo ; wandu
makumi gawili kwisa jumo; mbiya makumi mcheche
kwisa msano na lumo. (2) Mowa lichila ; ngalala lichila
kwisa makumi gawili kwisa msano na sitatu; mitela
machila gatatu kwisa jitatu; njelwa machila likumi
kwisa makumi msano ni gatatu, kwisa msano ni siwili.

(3) Nambweni katatupe ; akwisa kawili-kawili ; timbuje
pa lyuwa lya kasano; mulembe wandu wosepe nambo
jua watatu; mkaulaga nguku'jo, jakumalichisya jelejo.

(4) Naiche kumangwenu chilo cha lelo, nambo wajile
kwine. Mwasachile chichi? Nasachile kwasima lijela.

(5) Ana wa m'lukosyo luenu mkusyowelela kwinjila
m'nyumba chilo, mjasime lijelape ? (6) Ngwamba, na-
mbo nalikumbuchile petala, nipo nasachile kwaula ku
masengo nalyo kundawipe. Ngengwitichisya kuti mku-
wecheta gambone. (7) Lukonjilu wipi. Ana mkusaka
luine? Elo, mkajigale mikwamba jitatu. Jilingwa?
Nginimbikana 'chenene. Jitatupe. (8) Mkaulaje mbusi'jo,
jajipiliyu'jo ; akwisa alendo. Taiche lyuwa'chi ? ligulo
lelo. (9) Tinyaule kwa mpwanga malawi, ngajasime
mbiya. Ana tamjitichisye? Nguwona, ligongo akwete
mbiya syasijinji mnope, sya ku masengo gakwe.

Exercise 24. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1) 2 houses ; 6 sheep ; 8 people ; 15 dogs ; 21 days ;
37 shillings ; (2) 61 reeds ; 86 bamboos ; 94 fathoms ;
106 men; 126 fowls; 372 eggs; 1001 words. (3) He
comes here only occasionally; I have been there four
times this month; What month is this? The third.
Which day will you come? The tenth. The first
shilling. (4) Come on, let us go to the market to-day.
No, I can't go during the day, but I will go this evening.

(5) How many people did you see the other day?
Where? On the hill there. Oh, I don't know, a great
number. How many though, thirty or three hundred?
There were more than five hundred. Yes, it is very
many. (6) Do you remember that you borrowed two
shillings from me? No, when (what day)? The day
before yesterday at the market. You said I was to re-
mind you. Oh yes. Come to my home and I will give
them to you. (7) Do you know [how] to build houses
like this? Yes, we are accustomed to build them at
home. They are very good. Excellent.

CHAPTER X.

1. Thb Verb "to be."

Infinitive,
Pres. Indie, J

Subjunctive,

Future,

The verb is somewhat irregular. The simple tenses
are : —

ku^a, to be.
ndili, I am.
ali, he is, they are.
tuli, we are.
muli, you are.
wali (all), they are.
mbe (n-^e), let me be.
a^e, tu^e,
mu^e, etc.
timbe, I will be.
ta^e, tutu^e,
timu^e, etc.
Present Perfect, mbele, I have been.

a^ele, tu^ele, mbele, chi^ele, etc.
Past, naliji, or na^ele. I was.

waliji, or wa^ele, he was.
twaliji, or twa^ele, etc.
Negative Present nginimba, J was not,
and Past, I am 9iot.

ngana^a, etc.
Negative Subj.

(rarely used)j nga^a, akat^a, etc.
Negative Futtire, ngimba, I shall not be.

nga\^a, ngiitu^a, etc.
The other tenses are regular.

(70)

THE VBBB 71

Note. — The verb kwCba has also the meaaing of " to become .' *
e.gf. Fakawile tiichi^a yangune,
They will become mine eventTially,
Sambano a^ele juawii,
He hcM become a thief now.
Cf. also :—

^' Malamulo gane nganitu^e 'gamanyilila^ mate gakwe ne
lelo," (lit.) Some laws we have not yet become understanding their
meaning it is to-day ; i.e. We have not yet been able to fathom the
meaning of some laws to this day.

2. The Present Imperfect.

This tense is formed by prefixing the present tense of
kuibay ** to be," to the verbal noun (Class XV.) with the
locative m' {i.e. the participle, see page 110).

e.g. ndili-mknlola, I am looking.
alimkulola, tulimkulola, etc.

3. The Past Imperfect is formed in two ways : —

(i) In a similar manner to the above, by the use of
the past tense of kuwa with the participle : —

e.g. naliji-mkwenda, I was walking.

twalijimkujigala, ibe were carrying, etc.

(ii) By prefixing the pronoun followed by a to the
stem, and suffixing -ga : —

e.g. najendaga, I was walking.

twajigalaga, we were carrying, etc.

4. The Copula.

(a) There are two forms--^(i) The appropriate tense of
the verb kuiba, and (ii) the syllable nd% fide, no, or ni.
The former is used for purposes of description, and the
latter, identity : —

^ Ku elided before g (see note, page 54).

72 A YAO QRAMMAB

e.g, muli mwanachepe, you are quite a child.

ngwamba, ndili juamkulungwa sambano, no, 1 am
grown up now.
but juelejo no * boi * juangu, that is my servant.

Not infrequently the copula is altogether omitted : —

e,g, nyumba'jo jambone, that is a nice house,
bttt nyumba jili jambone, a house is nice.

(6) In the negative form the same rule holds good for
the use of the verb kuway the negative copula corres-
ponding to ndij etc., being ngati : —

e.g, mtela'wo nganaut^a woleu, that tree is not a tall one.
but ngati ajo ? is it not he ?

5. " There is " (or " there are ") is expressed by infixing
ku, pa, or mu to the present tense of kwiba : (e.g. apali,
upaUj ukuli, jipaU, simuUt etc.), ku expressing the idea of
motion, pa of inaction, mu of existence '* m."

6. " There is not *' (or " there are not ") is rendered by
kwangali, pangali, mwangali, ngapagwa.

** There was not " (or ** there were not ") is represented
by nganapagwa or nganaku,gwa.

" Nobody " and " nothing " are expressed by the use
of the word ngapagwa (present) or nganapagwa (past), the
relative being used before the verb (if any).

e.g. kwangali nguo, there is no calico.

^andu nganapagwa, there were no people.
nyama nganisipagwa, there was no game.
mkusaka chichi ? Ngapagwa, what do you want ?

Nothing,
ngapagwa juatajaule, nobody shall go.
nganapagwa juambweni, nobody saw me.
nganapagwa juanimbweni, I saw nobody.

THE VERB

73

7. Ths RiiLATrvE Tenses {affirmativo).

(i) The Relative Pronoun corresponding to all noun
classes is the same as the class characteristic. There is
only one exception, viz. the second class, which has u
instead of '(ba.

In all tenses other than the present (see page 52) the
Relative Pronoun is merely prefixed to the ordinary form
of the verb : —

e.g, mikalo jijagwilC; knives which fell

lisimba litiliiche, a Lion which will conie. ,

jungwaula, I who go,

uwe utuli WaYao, we who are Yaos.

'mwe umjigele, you who have brought

^andu u^akwete yakulya, people who have food.

mundu juwaiche. a person who came.

(ii) The Relative Pronoun is made objective by adding
the objective (connective) pronoun of the same class, to
the verb : —

e.g. ng'ombe'jo jinajiweni, the ox which I saw.
mundu juambweni, the man who saw me.
mundu ju {or jua) nambweni, the man whom I saw.
nde ai^a utuk^atuma'^a, these are they whom we send.

Colloquially, however, the objective pronoun may be
omitted if no ambiguity result.

(iii) The relatives " when " and " where " are rendered
by a similar use of the characteristic of time and place,
pa. This is liable to euphonic changes.

e.g. pataiche, when he comes.
pinyawile, when I have gone,
potumbweni, when we saw him.

74 A TAO GBAMMAB

The demonstrative is usually added when this form
has the meaning " where " : —

e.g, pa atem^pala, where he sat

potumbweni'po. where we saw him.

(For "whither" and "whence " see page 102.)

The use of the copula {nde, etc., see page 71) with the

above constructions gives the meaning of "the reason

why ^ (relative) : —

e,g, nde potu^ele ^angali masengo, that is why we
have no work.
nde pingusaka k^awona, that is why I want to
see him.

8. The Negative Rblativf.

(i) The present has two diflFerent forms according as
the relative is subjective or objective.

(a) The present subjective (negative) has already been
dealt with (see page 52).

(b) The construction of the objective form of the
present is as follows : the Relative Pronoun (agreeing
with the object), the Personal Pronoun (agreeing with
the su|3Ject of the sentence), the syllable -&a-, the infini-
tive -kU'j the objective pronoun, and finally the stem of
the verb : —

e.g. chindu chi-tu-ka-ku-chi-manyilila, a thing which
we do not understand.
mbeju simkakusipanda'mwe, plants which you
do not sow.

(ii) The negative past has also two forms according as
the relative is subjective or objective. The tense prefix
in both is -kana-^ but the subjective form requires only
the possessive to precede it, while the objective, like the
present, takes the relative and personal pronouns : —

rtHB VEBB * ?5

e.g. mundu juakanajimajima, a man who has not

travelled.
^andu ^akana^a^ WaYao, people who are not

Yaos.
ng'ombe'syo situkanasiwona liso, the oxen which

we did not see yesterday.
matete gaakanagasaka, reeds which thsy did not

want,

(iii) Colloquially, these objective forms, both present
and past, are found to be somewhat clumsy, and one
often hears the subjective forms used objectively : —

e.g, nguo syangawala ^andu msape, clothes which
the common people do not wear.
ngapagwa chilambo chakaiiapitaga ^ele^o,
there is no country (through) which they did
not pass.

(iv) The copula combined with the demonstrative (see
page 47) may be used with the relative tenses to express
emphasis : —

e.g. chaka'chila ndicho chasamile, that was the year
he moved.
ngati ^ele^o ndi^vo uA^asoyiye, it was not they who

were in error.
chelecho ndicho chichili nangolo, that is the best
of all (lit. that it is which is the parent).

(v) The relative may be replaced by -ana, "having,"
with the infinitive : —

e.g. ^andu ^ana kutenda yeleyi, people who act like
this.

Exercise 25. Translate into English : —

Tinjiwa; wawele; alimkusosa; watumaga; simuli
ng^ombe; ngapagwa juapeleche kandu; achalendo uwa-
weni ; ngondolo sisijinjile ; uwe utuwechete ; achachanda

Pres. Perf., see page 436.

76 * A YAO GRAMMAR

uwapite'wo; lijela lingwete ; iiwe utuli achalendo; uti
jimwajijigele'jila ; wandu utwawilasile ; njelwa simwa-
sityosile ; paawechete ; pomwapite ; pomlembile'po ; paa-
gonile'pala; nde pinasasile; paligwile litaka'pala; nguo
siwakakusiwala ; indu yangamanyilila'mwejo ; indu im-
kanaijigala; mundualijuosejuakanalijiganya; chimanga
chitukakuchisaka ; wanache wakanapikana ; nguo simka-
nasichapa.

Exercise 26. Translate into ChiYao : —

We have been ; let him be ; I am learning ; we were
passing ; it is not they , were there no crocodiles in the
river ? Nobody saw them ; the axe which has fallen ;
the words which you spoke ; a boy who is reading ; the
game which is passing ; the woman who does not refuse ;
youths whom you called; the youths who called you;
people who do not come when I call them ; the cloth
which came ; children who have bathed ; you who have
hoes ; the knives which I wanted ; when you say ; when
they look ; where we slept ; that is why I wanted you ;
hoes which we do not want; words which we did not
understand (hear) ; the chiefs who did not come.

Vocabulary.

kumkuli, on the shores by land, up stream^ the higher ground,

kumikuli, to the huntirtg grounds.

kwi^anda, down stream, the lower ground,

asono (msonogo), wife, husband.

kumlyo, to the right,

kumchijiy to the left.

lipululu, an uninhabited area,

chipolopolo, a bullet. ,

kuli^alila (-li^alile), to forget.

kugomba uti (-gombile), to fire a gun.

kukulusya (-kulwisye), to miss.

kusoma (-somile), to wound, stab.

THE VEBB 77

kusichila (-sichile), to be rich, f

kulaga (-lasile), to he poor, unhappy ; to suffer,

kuso^a (-so^ile), to he unthout, to lack,

kusoya (-soyiye), to do wrortg, make a mistake.

kulombela (-lombele), to m^ri'y (of a male),

kugopola (-gopwele), to untie,

kugopolela (-gopolele), to explain.

kuti (-chite, -tite, -tiji), to say,

kusuma (-sumile), to huy.

kusumisya (-sumisye), to sell,

kupanganya (-pangenye), to make.

soni, alsOf and then^ again,

ugwi ! {an interjection expressing swrprise, exasperation, etc.).

eti ? is it so ?

ngati ? is it not so ? it is not so.

-angali (with cl, char.), without (adv.).

kwende, come on!, well (conj,).

lyu^a'chi ? chaka'chi ? katema'chi ? when ?

Exercise 27. Translate into English : —

(1) Mkuganisya ya chichi? Nagapagwa. Unami,
ngapagwa juakutama iyoyo, juangaganisya ya chindu.
(2) Naganisyaga kuti une juakulaga. Ugwi! mkusowa
chichi? Yejinji, une juangali nguo, juangali chindu. (3)
Ngapagwa juakusowa yosepe nambo melepe. Atugopo-
lele. Mnndu akusowa chindu ligongo juangali mbiya,
eti? (4) Elo. Kwende, akusowa mbiya ligongo nga-
kupanganya masengo. Iyoyo. Basi, mkapanganye ma-
sengo mpela uwe. (5) Mkawilanje Che Juma, ajigale uti
jangu. Ngwaula ku mikuli. Tajigale uti jachi? Ja
nyama, na jine ja ijuni nombe najo. (6) Nyama'jo !
Jili kwapi ? Apo, jitemi pasi ; mgombe chitema jikana-
jitupikane. Mkulwisye, mgombe soni, nganijitile.
Chambone, mjisomile sambano. (7) Asono wenu ali
kwa'? Ajile kwiwanda kukulola achikuluwao. Ana
mwalombele chaka'chi? Lijusi'lila; nalombele alumbu
wag Che Ali. (8) Mkwete upile, Juakusichila juelejo.

78 A YAO GBAMMAR

Kusyene, nambo lilyolyd^ nganawa ligongo lyakwe kuti
nalombele alumbu wakwe. (9) Ugwi ! nginisala yati*yoyo.
Elo, nambo mbesile kuti mate gakwe gelego.

Exercise 28. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1) You must not come into my house like that. I
was wrong, Sir, I forgot. (2) What is that noise outside
there? There are a lot of people who have come to buy
maize. (3) Tell them to come back to-morrow, is it not
evening now? They say they have travelled {kwenda)
where there are no villages, and are hungry {tr, hunger
has them). (4) Let them borrow some food; I can't
give them any this evening. All right, but they will
suffer. (5) Where did you wound the buck? In {pa)
the left leg. Did you kill it afterwards? (6) Yes, I
fired three times, the first bullet wounded it, then I
missed, and the third killed it. (7) Untie this rope.
Nobody could untie it, somebody (mundu) has tied a
difiicult knot (tr. which is difiicult). (8) Who told you
to throw that plate away ? Nobody, but it was broken,
and I thought that [it was] useless now {tr, without
work). (9) Which way shall we go ? There are no vil-
lages up-stream; let us go down stream and see your
brother.

CHAPTER XL

1. The Verb {contimced).

(i) The Conditional Mood.

(a) Present, or Future.

This tense, having the meaning of "if so-and-so be
done," is formed by prefixing the syllables na-, ni-, etc.,
to the subjunctive. This prefix is really an abbreviated
form of naga, etc., " if" : —

e.g. na akasose 'chenene, if he search carefully.
natujaule, if we go.

The Future Tense may be used instead of the subjunctive
when it is desired to refer the action to a more remote period : —

e.g. nataiche, if he should come.

The same syllable na is often used with the infinitive : —

e.g, nakwika ula, if rain come,

{b) The Past Conditional is formed by infixing the syllable
nga to the subjunctive : —

e.g, ningawone, */ 1 had seen.
angajaule, if he had gone,
mungalole, if you had looked.
tunga^e, if we had been.

(c) The Negative^ both Present and Past, is formed by
prefixing the past conditional of kwiba to the negative
relative, or the negative subjunctive may be used : — >

(79)

80 A YAO GRAMMAB

e,g, akaika lelo, should he not come to- day.

jikapagwa uti jao, had it not been for ki$ gim.
ninga^e juangajaula, if I had not gone, if I do not

go.
munga^e juangatenda, if you had not done, etc.
singa^e syangatuwona, if they {game) had not
seen us, etc.

(d) The simple tenses may be used with anaga, naga,
naiba, etc., but the above forms are more idiomatic : —

e.g, anaga mkuwona, if you see,

na^a nganaiche, if he has not yet come,

(ii) The Contingent Mood.

(a) Present,

This is formed by prefixing the subjective pronoun to-
gether with the syllable nga to the stem, and suffixing
-ga. It implies a necessary sequence to an action : —

e,g. ningajaulaga, I should be going {if so-and-so were
the c<ise),
tungatamaga, we should be sitting.

Another form frequently heard is similarly derived
from the past imperfect tense : —

e,g, ningalijimkwaula, I should have been going,
tungalijimkutama, we should have been sitting,

(ft) The Past Contingent is formed from the present
perfect by infixing the syllable nga: —

e,g, ningajawile, I should have gone,
tungatemi, we should have sat,

(c) The Negative Contingent is formed by prefixing
ngikini {ngakana, ngukunu, etc.) to the pronoun and
stem. The first person singular is irregular: —

e,g, ngingininyaula, I should not have gone,
ngakana^ajoga, they would not have bathed,
ngikinisitila, they wovid not have run away.

THE VEEB 81

Examples.

Ningamauyilile kuti mwajile kwine, nginginiika. If 1
had known that you had gone elsewhere^ I should not have
come,

Tungasume buku'jo liso, tungalijimkuwalanga sam-
bano. If we had bought that book yesterda/j/y we should have
been reading it now.

Najiiche ula chilo, tutujaule ku migunda. If rain
comes to-night, we shall go to the gardens,

2. The Adjective (continued).

(i) In addition to the true adjective roots already
noticed, others may be formed from verbs in the follow-
ing ways : —

(a) By the use of the relative tense of verbs describing
a condition: —

e.g. mundu juakukalamuka, a clever man (lit. a man
who is clever),
ng'ombe jakuganda, a thin ox.

The kU' of the infinitive is often omitted before g or fc,
thus: ng*ombe jaganda.

(b) By changing the final a of the stem into e^ and
using it as an ordinary adjective : —

e.g. nyama jajiuwe (from kuuwa, to die), dead game.
nyumba jajita^^e chile, a house ready built.

(ii) A noun may be used as an adjective by means of
the possessive : —

e.g, mundu jua ulesi, a lazy man.
ulalo wa maganga, a stone bridge.

* -ana "having," and -angali, "without," "not having,"
may be similarly employed : —

e.g, mchanda juana machili, a strong boy.
mchanda juangali machili, a tveak boy.

6

82 A YAO GRAMBiAB

(iii) If in qualifying one noun by means of another,
there be any suggestion of locality implied, both the pos-
sessive and the locative must be used : —

e.g, nguo ja mwibweta {not nguo mwibweta), the cloth
in ths box.
^andu ^a ku musi {not ^andu ^a musi), village-
people,

(iv) Comparison is expressed by means of a simple
statement. If, of two or more things, one is said to pos-
sess a certain quality, it is implied that it does so in a
greater degree than the others : —

e.g, ni nyumba sya ku musi'kuno, ajino jambone,
this is the best house in the village.
najiji najojo, ajino jangulungwa, this is the larger.

The verb -punda ("excel") is very commonly used,
especially with verbs or verbal adjectives : —

e.g. nachichi ni chelecho, chakusalala chapi?
Chipundile aoho. Which is the prettier of these ?
That one.
ni ^osepe ^akuuta galeta, apundile kuutuka
i^ani? Apundile Juma. Who is the best
runner among the rickshaw men ? Juma.

The intensitives kusyene, mnope, etc., may be similarly
employed : —

e.g. Pane mbwa jangu jigandile, nambo jenumwe
jigandile mnope, my dog may be thin, but youis
is still thinner.

Exercise 29. Translate into English : —

(1) Nakajoje ; nangumbuchile ; namsache ; nasitile.

(2) Ningamanyilile; angajase; chingajasiche; ingamale.

(3) Tungawe wangapikana ; chingawe changamala ;

THE VBBB 83

ningawe juangamanyilila. (4) Tungawonaga; munga-
lijimkulola ; ningapelaga; angalijimkujigala ; munga-
weni. (5) Ningampele; tungawandichile ; angajasile;
ngikiniimala ; nginginijiulaga ; ngukunumkulusya. (6)
Nginginiliwalila ; mundu juakulaga; libweta lya chis-
yano.

Exercise 30. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1) If you come ; if we see ; if he miss ; should you
marry. (2) If you had known ; if I had seen it [box] ;
if it [gun] had come; if he had bought it [cloth]. (3)
If I had not done wrong ; if you had not forgotten ; if we
had been rich ; if the rain had not come. (4) I should
be sending ; you would have been finishing ; they would
have been making. (5) He would have forgotten; I
should have remembered ; you would have died ; they
[hoes] would have been lost. (6) We should not have
left ; I would not have given him ; it [thing] would not
have been diflScult. (7) A rich man ; a worn out
(finished) cloth ; a wooden chair ; lost money.

Vocabulary.

chemwali (1), a girl, sister,

usume (14), a price,

mbote (9), reward, {hence) wages.

liuto (6), a place, room.

lichinga (5), a cattle krc^al.

chitundu (7), a hen-hovise.

chiteletele (7), a basket for carrying fowls.

lipesa (5) an opening, opportunity.

panono, panandi, a little, rather.

kuujilila (-ujilile), to turn back, to come ba^k again.

kulinda (-lindile), to wait.

kulindilila (-lindilile), to await , watch.

kulipa (-lipile), to pay.

kuleka (-lesile), to leane, stop {neutsry

84 A TAO GRAMMAB

kulekasya (-lekasisye), to stop {trans.), prevent*

kukula (-kusile), io grow, grow up,

kunandupa (-nandwipe), to be few, he too few,

kuchuluka (-chulwiche), to he many, he too rMiny.

kutwichila (-twichile), to put (a load) on the head,

kutula (-tusile), to put down (a load), to alight {of a bird),

kusechelela (-sechelele), to be plea^sed, rejoice.

kutola (-tosile), to fetch.

kwangali chindu, ) . ,

kwangali kandu, | »<*«•* "o« «"»««<"••

pakuti, seeing that (conjunctio7i).

kala, some time ago, formerly,

katasi, recently, not long a^o,

namose, even if, although, and even, also»

kwene, really {with verb).

-ene {with cl. char,), real, genuine.

Exercise 31. Translate into English:—

(1) Ningamanyilile kuti mwalijimkwisa, ningamlindi-
lile'mwe. Kwangali chindu, nasoyiye namsyene ligongo
ngininduma mundu amsalile'mwe. (2) Mwasalile alinde
pasa, tiiche pangakawa. Wajigele nguku welewo? Elo,
wajigele likumi kwisa jimo. (3) Ana wasijigele uli?
Syasitawe pa chitela. Ugwi ! nginisala mowa gosepe
kuti akasasijigala iyoyo? Ligongo chichi ngakutawa
chiteletele asiwiche m'momo? (4) Kwalini, achimsyene.
Ngati'mwe Capita© ? No masengo genu kwalekasya
wandu ngatenda yati ii. (5) Elo bwana, naliwalile ;
nganingola malowe gane. Chaij^bone, pakumlipa'mwe
mbiya syenu, none tindiwalile mbote jenu, nipo tindi-

pe'mwe msanope. Nambo . Basi mjauleje. (6)

Ana ng'ombe sijinjile mwichinga ? Ngwamba, nginisi-
jinjile ; pakuti sine'syo siiche lelo, sambano sichulwiche.
(7) Kwangali liuto kwakwinjila syosepe ? Elo, kwangali.
Chambone, kwa lelo muwiche ng'ombe syosepe mwichi-
nga'mo, sya kala namose sine sisyaiche lelo. (8) Mku^
pikana? Elo. Kwende; ngondolo nambo sijinjile

THE VERB 86

m'nyumba jine ja kala'jo ; soni 'mwe mulindilile kwe-
leko chilo chose, ni uti. Nakwika chisui mchiulaje. (9)
Malawi tututume wandu akatole mitela, tutawe lichinga
line lya ngondolo, Chambone, bwana, mbikene.

Exercise 32. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1) If you had come earlier (katasi), you would have
seen your younger brother. I should have got here some
little time ago, had I not forgotten my mat; I went
back to fetch it. (2) Ate they all quite well (chitoela) at
home ? Yes, quite well. What about here {kwalini kwe-
kuno) ? Che Bula has come back. (3) Oh ! I suppose
(kuwona) he is grown up now ? Yes, he is very pleased to
be back. He worked at Halale (Salisbury) [for] two
years, and he is quite rich. (4) If we had known that you
wanted workers, we should have come some time ago.
Why did you not wait for us? (6) You would not be
pleased if a leopard killed your fowls before you had
finished building the house for them {tr. their). (6) No,
I am waiting for the reeds, my sister has gone to fetch
them ; with your permission {tr, if you consent) I will
leave them here in your house to-night. (7) There is no
place in which {ir, where) to put them. It does not
matter. I will leave them in their basket for to-night.
(8) How many Europeans are coming here for dinner {tr,
to eat) ? Four. I don't think there will be enough food
for four {tr, I think the food is too few). (9) You had
better kill {subj.) another fowl, and fetch a tin {chitini)
of fruit. (10) What are you putting that load on your
head for? I thought that we were to start now. Put it
down again, and wait for the others.

CHAPTER XII.

The Verb {contintisd).

1. The Future Tenses.

(i) In addition to the future tense already given there
are two others in use expressing degrees of delay in
carrying out the action.

The first of these expresses the idea that the action is
to be performed at a distance, or after some delay, and
is formed from the simple future by infixing the syllable
ka : —

e,g, talole, he ivill look.

takalole, he loill go and look, or, will look

presently.
tingajoje, I will go and bathe, or, I shall bathe

^presently.
tutukajoje, etc.

The other, more emphatic, implies that the action will
be carried out at some unspecified date, more or less
remote. It is formed by prefixing chi to the stem, to-
gether with the usual ti- {ta-, tu-, etc.), and the pronoun.
•It should be noted that the final -a does not change to
•e in this tense : —

e.g. tachijaula, he tbill go.

tinjiika (ti-n-chi-ika), I will come {later on), etc.

(ii) In any of these Futures the letter s may be sub-
stituted for the initial t. This implies obligation
(*' must "), or necessary consequence : —

(86)

THE VBEB 87

e.g. tindeche kutenda yeleyo, I ioill stop doing that,
sindeche kutenda yeleyo, I must stop doing that,
nakuwika mbale apo, sijikasiche, if you put the
plate there, it ibill he broken.

(iii) There is only one negative for all forms of the
Future, viz. that given in Chapter VII., page 50.

2. There are two tenses which greatly resemble these
future tenses in formation, though their function assigns
them to the Conditional Mood.

They both differ from their prototypes in prefixing m-
(wa-, etc.) instead of ti- {ta-, etc.), and also in that the suflBx
^muno forms an integral part of the tense.

That formed from the ha future tense has the meaning
of " might." It always implies doubt and often nega-
tion. It may be used either with a present (future)
meaning or with reference to past : —

e.g. ningajaule'muno, I
nakajaule^muno, he
natukajaule'muno, we
nimkajaule'muno, you
na\^akajaule'muno, they

might go (but quite
likely will not) ; or,
might have gone {but
did not).

The other ia formed in a similar manner from the
distant future. It is an emphatic conditional : —

e.g. ninjijaula'muno,
nachij aula'muno,
natuchij aula'muno,
nimchij aula'muno,
nai^achijaula'muno,

Although I {he, you, etc.)
go, or, even if I go.

This tense also may have reference to the past : —

e.g. 'tuchaumbasya'muno (na - tu - chi - ^a - umbasya
'muno), ngamanya, although we have in-
structed him, he knows nothing.

88 A TAO GBAMMAR

This might equally mean, " although we may instruct
him, he will know nothing."

The first of these may be used as a negative of the
second : —

e»g, ningaiche'm\mo kumangwao, namsimene kum-
sika, I might have got to his home (but) I m^t
him at the m^rketj i.e. although I did not get
to his homey I met him at the m/irket.

These forms are rapidly becoming obsolete, and in their stead
this mood of the verb kwCba is used as if it were a conjunction : —

e,g, nachi^amuno nyaule, although I may go {even if I go).

Even this is becoming corrupted into namuno, which may be
used with any tense : —

e,g, namuno najawile, although I went.

It is probable that the conjunction namose has a similar origin
from a verbal form such as na-(chiy'(ba*mo8e.

3. The expression " since I (he, you, they, etc.) did so-
and-so " is rendered by changing the final -a of the stem
into 'ile, or -efe, and prefixing chi-.

This form is the same for all classes and persons : —

e.g. chipagwile, nginimbone {or nginimbona) yati ii,
since I was porn, I have seen nothing like this,
chita^ile, nganitugona m'nyumba'mo, we have
not slept in the house since it v^as built.

In the above examples the change in the stem is the same as
that which takes place in the Perfect ; care must be taken not
to use the Perfect form of such verbs as kutama, kuwona, etc.
Thus : chitamiley not chitemi ; chiwonile, not chiweniy and so on.

As a rule, verbs whose penultimate vowel is a, i, or -w, change
the final -a into -ile ; where this vowel is e or o into -ele. This
rule is, however, open to exception ; e.g. -gonile is heard as often
as 'gonelf.

THE VBEB 89

4. The use of appropriate tenses of the auxiliary verb
ku^a with the above construction, gives the meaning of
" still doing so-and-so " : —

e,g, ndili chilolele, I am still looking.

\^aliji chitamile, they were still sitting.

Note. — (i) The simple chi- form (par 3) without the verb kuwa
may have a similar meaning.

(ii) Compare the use of the eontinuative suflfix -ga (p. 36).

5. The construction "merely" or "just doing so-and-
so" is expressed either by means of the verb -gamba^
preceding the infinitive of the verb qualified, or by use
of the suflBx 'pe, or both : —

e.g. akwamba kutama, he is just sitting (doing nothing).
ngwamba kulolape, I am merely looking.
agambile kwaula, he just went.
mgambe kuchiwika apo, just put it there.
tingambe kt^apa, / shall merely give them,
atemipe, he is merely sitting.

Exercise 33. Translate into English : —

Tachiika; tingalinde; sinyaule; sachipita; satukalipe;
chiichile; chikamulile masengo; ali chigonile; naliji
chimlindilile ; yaliji chitamile; tukwamba kusosa; na-
gambile kumsalila; mgambe kumpa; nimchichuluka
'muno ngingumjogopa ; ningasache'muno tingasumeje;
ana timkaujep Ningauje'muno !

Exercise 34. Translate into ChiYao : —

He will pay (sometime); we will go and draw water;
you must return (sometime) ; they will go and put down
their loads ; since they saw us ; since you fetched ; he is
still growing; we still want; I merely called you; we

1 The infinitive of this verb (and therefore the present) is ir-
regular — kwamba. Its literal meaning is "to speak" (cf, maga-
mho), and it is ofteii used in the sense of " to mean,"

90 A YAO GBAMMAR

are only looking ; they were merely bathing ; even if you
turn back you will not find him ; although he has not
paid us (yet) he will pay (sometime) ; although I searched
everywhere I could (did) not find it.

Vocabulary.

mwanja, goivig (I am — , you are — , indecL).

^ . ' I that one. he, him. that same person.
we'mwanja'wo, f

jele'mianja'jo, \

A 1 , .^ l they, those same people.

wele'wanganyao, j

^ampingo, j

mwanja*mwe, ^anya'mwe, you there !

kanga, pane, either, or, perhaps, whether.

nyono, '' WhaVs-his-nameV, '' What-d'you-calUitV

jualakwe, he, that one.

^alakwe, you (polite), they.

panjipa, perhaps.

-a cheni, whose ?

kwa cheni ? pa cheni ? to who^n ? at whose home ?

kugwa (-gwile), to fall, to occur.

kuteleka (-teleche), to cook.

kutanda (-tandite), to begin.

kupechesya (-pechesye), to accompany.

kulongana na (-longene), to accompany.

kulanga (-lanjile), to keep animals, to say good-bye.

kulanjila (-lanjile), to point ovtt.

kulangana na (-langene), to arrange vnth, to agree.

kukangamala (-kangamele), to make haste.

kukulumisya (-kulumisye), to hasten (trans.).

kwaula kwimajima, to ^^ go for a walk.''

kula^^a (-labile), to start early in the moiming.

kula^ala^a (-la^ala^ile), to wander about.

kusimongwa (-simongwile), to be puzzled.

kusimonjeka (-simonjeche), to be puzzling.

kumanya (-manye), to be acquainted with (a person).

kulonjela (-lonjele), to stay sometime at orie place.

kukunguluka (-kungulwiche), to converse, pay a call^

THE VERB 91

Exercise 35. Translate into English : — •

(1) Che Nyono ajile kwa? Wani? Lina lyakwe nali-
walile ; Nyono — , jualakwe juakulawalawa mowa gosepe.

(2) Kwalini, ngongwamanyilila. Aw ! mkummanya kus-
yene ; Nyono, jualongene nomwe pomwajawile ku Zomba.

(3) E-e! Che Juma! Elo, mwanja'wo; ali kwa? Namb-
weni katasi, kumsika'ko. Ana walijimkutenda chichi?

(4) Ngapagwa, wagambile kukunguluka ni wandu. Ana
mkuwona ali chiwela sambano? Panjipa, wampingo
wakwendajenda mowa gosepe, katema kane wakwamba
kwimajima, kane wakulonjela kweleko. (5) We'mwanja
'wo wakusimonjeka, akuwala mowa gosepe mpela juaku-
sichila, nambo masengo ngakupanganya kose. (6)
Nimbilanje? Elo, nambo mkangamaleje ligongo nga-
nimtande kuteleka yakulya, none ngupikana sala
sambano'jino. (7) Sampechesye'mwe pakuuja. Elo
ngumanyilila, timbuje najo pangakawa. (8) Sambano
tulonjele akuno, malawi mwanja ulendo wetu. Yam bone,
nambo tulawe kundawi-ndawipe, ligongo musi lyuwa
lyakogoya. (9) Wanganyao wakutwichila akatundu,
sachilaga nalyo. Elo, nambo tukwamba kuja kwa Che
Chiwalo, kwangatalika.

Exercise 36. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1) My house fell down last night. Really? Yes, I
must build another now ; it does not matter though, it
has lasted well {tr. it has delayed). (2) When will you
begin to build the new one? I came here to arrange
with somebody to work for me {tr. enter my work). (3)
Building the house? Yes, what about it {ambi uli)? I
cannot, but I think that what's- his-name — Bula, would
consent, because he wants work. (4) Where is he (tr.
that one) ? He has gone for a walk, but he will be back
soon. [There he] he [is] ! He is coming now. (6) Point
him out. That one who is walking with tli^ woman,

92 A YAO GRAMMAK

All right, I will go and talk to {tr. with) him. (6) Hi ! You !
do you want work? What kind of work? Building a
house. Yes — whose house though? Mine, of course.
(7) Can you write on people for tax-work ^ ? No, but my
master (ir. European) will write you on to work for him
{tr, for his work), so that you can pay 48. only. (8) If
he will do that, all right, I will come and build your
house. Come on, let us go to the European, [so that] he
can write you on to-day, and you can begin work early on
Monday ^ morning. Come on, then. (9) [Please] Sir, I
want this man to build my house at the village. Yes, I
hear you, what about it? Wovdd you write him on
(subj.) as if in your employ, because I can't go to the
village and do it myself, being your boy. All right, I
will write him on.

* Tax, msoko.

* Monday, lyuwa lyakulemha.

CHAPTER XIII.

1. The Derivative Forms of the Verb.

(i) The Applied Form.

This is formed from the simple stem by changing the
final -a into -ila, or -ela after penultimate e or o (cf. Chap.
XII, Par. 3). The effect is that of adding a preposition
("to," ^'for," "with," etc.) to the simple meaning: —

e.g. kuteleka, to cook.

kutelechela, to cook in, for, etc.
kulola, to look,

kulolela, to look for, to hope.
kwika, to come.

kwichila, to arrive.

Examples : —

ngusaka mwakutelechela, I want {a place) to cook in.
tutwichile (tutuichile) kweleko malawi, toe shall

arrive there to-morrow.
tin'embe i^andu ^akundawila nyumba, I will lorite

on some people to build a house for me.

(ii) The Causative Form.

(a) As a general rule the Causative is formed by
changing the final a of the stem into -isya (or -esya, after
penultimate e or o), or by changing the final syllable
into 'sya. It has the meaning of "to cause to — " or
"to permit to — ."

(93)

94 A YAO GKAMMAB

e.g. kutenda, to do,

kutendesya, to cause to do.
kupita, to pass.

kupisya, to caiise, or allow to jyass.
kutyoka, to go away.
kutyosya, to take away.

(b) A more emphatic form is obtained by using
-ichisya or -echesya instead of -isya, -esya : —

e.g. kumala, to finish; cans., kumalisya or
kumalichieya.

(c) A few verbs take their causative in ^ika : —

e.g. kwimika, to set upright {from -jima).
kutamika, to put down ( from -tama).
kugoneka, to lay down (from -gona).

(d) All verbs ending in -ana form their causative in
-any a : —

e.g. kusongana, to gather together ; caus.,
kusonganya.
kuta^ana, to tie together ; caus., kutawanya.

A few verbs ending in -na and -wa form their causative in a
similar manner : —

e.g. kunguna, to stoop ; cans., kungunya.

kutojima, to be startled ; cans., kutojimya.

(e) Some verbs in -ukaj -pa, and -owa form their causa-
tive by changing the final syllable into -ya.

e.g. kuchuluka, to be many,

kuchuluya, to multiply.
kuleupa, to be lotig.

kuleuya, to lengthen.
kogopa, to fear.

kogoya, to frighten.

THE VERB 95

kutondo^a, to be slack.

kutondoya, to slacken,
kunyo^a, to be wet,

kunyoya, to wet,
kunonopa, to be hard.

kunonoya, to harden.

Note, — Kulima (" to hoe '') takes a semi-causative form in -ya
{kuUmya)y having the special meaning "to hoe for food, beer,"
etc. Kwima, in the sense of "to refuse," takes its causative in
a similar manner — kwimya — in contradistinction to kwim-ika,
" to set upright."

(/) The causative forms should always be used with
the objective pronoun, to distinguish them from the
intensitive form (see following paragraph).

(iii) The Intensitive Form of all verbs is the same as
the causative, and is distinguished therefrom partly by
the context, and partly by the absence of the objective
pronoun : —

e,g, kupikanichisya, to listen closely
{from -pikana).
kugumbalichisya, to be too full
(from -gumbala).

Note, — Compare kuwechetesyaj " to be garrulous," with ku-
mbechetesya, "to cause (him) to speak."

2. The Passive Voice.

(i) The true Passive is formed by changing the final
-a into 'Wa or -ilwa. It is rarely used, the more direct
active voice being preferred : —

e,g, kutuma, to send ; kutumwa, to be sent,
kuulaga, to kill; kuulajilwa, to be killed.

(ii) A form of the Passive in common use describes a
condition without reference to the agent. It is formed

96 A YAO GBAMMAB

by changing the final -a into -ika or -eka ; verbs ending
in 'Ula take -uka : —

e,g, kuwona, to see,

kuwoneka, to be visible,
kutuma, to send,

kutumika, to act as servant,
kupapula, to tear,

kupapuka, to be torn.

Note, — This form may also have the meaning that the state
is potential rather than actual : —

e.g. kuwalanga, to count,

kuwalanjika, to he countable,

3. Recency of action is expressed by prefixing na- (with
or without the Possessive) to the stem of verb,
and suflBxing -pe : —

e.g. masengo ganamalape, work just completed,

^andu i^analembape, people only just tvritten on,
naikape, as soon as I {yoUf he, etc.) arrived.

Exercise 37. Translate into English : —

(1) Kuulajila ; kuutuchila ; kutechela ; kulindila. (2)
Kukanisya ; kugwisya ; kuutusya ; kutisya ; kulosya.
(3) kuganichisya ; kutumichisya ; kuuchisya ; kupan-
ganichisya. (4) Kusumika ; kusomeka ; kugombeka ;
kwiniika;* kutawika ; kupikanika. (5) Waliji. juanaji-
mukape. (6) CheNampanda uwawilangwaga kuti Che-
Msamati.

Exercise 38. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1) To carry to ; to wound with ; to walk with ; to
build for. (2) To set down ; to cause to go ; to puzzle ;
to weary ; to obey implicitly. (3) To be missed ; to be
possible ; to be lendable ; to be washable (of a cloth) ;

THE VEEB 97

to be untied; to be stolen. (4) A house just built; I
had only just arrived.

• Vocabulary.

namyaka, this year,

mwacheso, last year,

mwachejusi, the year before last,

pachaka, chaka chine, ^lext year,

chau, the hot season,

masika, the harvest season,

soni (9), shame,

chitukuta (7), sweat, heat,

mtutu (3), fish-poison,

mlila (3), a watershed,

mtambala (3), a bundle,

lulele, gratuitously, for no apparent reason,

chiko (7), a ford, a landing-place,

komboka (-jombweche), to cross (a Hver),

kusyo^ekana na (-syo^ekene), to be friendly (with),

kupapula (-papwile), to tear,

kujuga (-jusile), to beg,

kwembecheya (-jembecheye), to wait, have patience,

kwalusya (-jalwisye), to be insolent, disrespectful,

kukuya (-kuyiye), to pursue, follow,

kwi^a (-ji^ile), to steal,

kutapika (-tapiche), to vomit,

kudandaula (-dandawile), to grumble, to be sorry.

kukamula*(-kamwile), to seize, catch.

kutandilila (-tandilile), to repeat, do again,

kulokota (-lokwete), to pick up,

kulepela (-lepele), to fail,

kulinga (-linjile), to try, measure, weigh.

Exercise 39. Translate into English : —

Wapali mundu juine wajile kukuulaga nyama, nipo
wauleje, nekutawa^ mtambala, nipo wapite litala lya
mlila lyangali mesi, nipo jamkwete njota. Nekutula

^ See page 41, par. 6.

7

98 A YAO GRAMMAE

mtambala wakwe petala kukusosa mesi, nipo asimene
mesi gamajinji. Akanang'we mesi'go wasiweni somba
syasijinji silimkwendajenda m'mesi'mo, nipo jual%kwe
watite, '* Tingasose mtutu mbulaje somba'si." Nipo
wajawile kukusosa mtutu nekujigala, nekutaga m'mesi
'mo. Katema kakoko wasiweni somba'syo silimkwenda
pachanya pa mesi, nipo jualakwe wakumbuchile kuti,
"Tingatole mtambala wangu, mbiche panopano, ngasi-
ulaje somba'si 'chenene." Nipo wajile kukutola. Kweleko
wasimene mtambalaVo wajiwile wandu wane, nipo
jualakwe wakuyiye litala lyosepe. Nganambona juaji-
gele. Chitema chitema wausile soni kukamula somba
'syo, nipo somba'syo wasisimene sitapiche mtutu'wo,
silimkwenda pasi mnope. Nipo mundu'jo walijimku-
dandaula mnope, kuti, " Nyama jangu wajiwile wandu,
soni somba nganinisikamula. Nawa ningang'we mesi'ga
nekwaula, nyama ngakanajiwa wandu. Ngisindandil la
soni kutenda yeleyi." Mundu'jo wajawile kumangwa-
kwe juangali kandu kakujigala.

ExEKCiSE 40. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1) That man, who is sitting over there, has given me
a cloth for nothing, and I have nothing to give him [in
return]. (2) Please, will somebody who has got a shil-
ling, lend it me? I will give it him back. (3) We
haven't got [any either], we are as poor as you. What
shall I do, because the man is going ? (4) Tell him to
come back at the end of the month. All right, I will
tell him [so that] he can go. (5) There has been very
little rain this year. There were good rains last year
and the year before, we cannot hope for good rains every
year. (6) No, perhaps next year the rainy season will
not be [so] late. You must not make [so] much beer
that is all. (7) Why are you late ? I could not cross the
river at the ford, and I went to Manyama's to borrow a

THE VEEB 99

canoe. (8) Your cloth is torn. Yes, I have tried to
borrow another, but failed. You are always begging, I
suppose you came here to see what you could pick up.

(9) Do you think I want to steal ? Why do you want to
insult me (tr, to be insolent) ? I don't know, but I don't
make friends with people who beg and do no work, as if
they had no sense of shame {tr. as if without shame).

(10) It is very hot to-day, I could not {tr. I failed to)
sleep last night. Yes, the hot season has begun now.

CHAPTER XIV.

1. Derivative Forms of the Verb (contd,),

(i) The Beciprocative Form,

This is formed by adding -na to the stem. By its use
two or more persons or things are brought into mutual
relation, or the action is made mutual : —

e.g. kuta^a, to tie.

kuta^ana, to tie together.
kuwecheta, to speak.
kuweehetana, to converse.

A more emphatic form is obtained by substituting -ngana for
-na. It implies that the action relates to a number of people (or
things) : —

e.g. kusongana, to gather.

kusongangana, to meet together.
kuleksma, to he different.
kulekangana, to he mutually different.

Some verbs change the final -a of the stem to -igana or
-egatM : —

e.g. kulolegana, to look at each other.
kuwonegana, to see each other.

(ii) The Beversive Form.

The meaning of a verb may be reversed by changing
the fiLnal -a into 'Ula^ -ukula, or 4kula : —

e.g. kwinama, to stoop.

kwinamukula, to straighten oneself.
kusakama, to hang up.
. , kusakamula, to take down.

''- '' (100)

THE VBBB 101

kuBweka, to put in,

kuswekula, to pull out
kusajika, to put on top,

kusajukula, to remove from the lop.
kumata, to smear on.

kumatula, to peel off.

(iii) The Reflexive Form of the verb is obtained by pre-
fixing -li' to the stem : —

e.g. kuliwona, to see oneself.
kuliulaga, to commit suicide.

2. Adverbs.

In addition to the adverbs given in the vocabulary,
others may be formed in the following ways ^ : —

(i) By intensifying the verb by the use of mnope or
Jcusyene, or merely by using the intensitive form of the
verb, or both : —

e.g. kwenda mnope, to walk fast,
kulolechesya, to look carefully.
kuwechetesya kusyene, to speak at great length.

(ii) From nouns by the use of cha or ya r —

e.g. cha ukali, fiercely.
ya unami, deceitfully.

The root of a verb may be similarly employed : —

e.g. yakalamuka, cunningly.
yakolelwa, drunkenly.

(iii) Occasionally an adverb is formed by prefixing
kwa- or pa- to the infinitive of a verb : —

e.g. kwakutalika, /ar at(;ay
pakuwandika, near.

1 See also Appendix IIL, p, 125.

102 A YAO GBAMMAB

(iv) "Whence" or "whither" (relative) are formed
by the use of hu-^ with or without the locative suflBx 'A;o,
^kula. The appUed form of the verb is sometimes
used : —

e,g. nganinimbona kwajinjilile, I did not see which way

he went,
alolite kwaumile'ko, he looked hack to where he had

come from.
waujilile kwagonile'kula, he turned hack to where

he had slept.

Similarly, " wherein " is rendered by mu : —

e.g, m'nyumba'mo m'mwagonile'mula, that house
wherein you slept

(v) Note that while kumbujo always means 'in front,"
it cannot always be so translated. The European always
thinks of an object as facing him, and therefore anything
beyond it must be behind it: the native, on the other
hand, pictures an object as facing the same way as he
is, and therefore more distant things are in front of it
(kumbujo kwakwe). If a person is facing him, however,
more distant things are behind that person (kunyuma
kwakwe) as in English.

3. Quite apart from the dative forms belonging to
Class XV. (see page 32), a verbal stem may be converted
into a noun of any class. The prefix will vary according
to the shade of meaning to be assigned to the word —
e,g, mu-, living ; ch% instrumentality ; Zi, roundness or
large size ; lu, length ; and so on (see Chap. II., par. 7),
though these prefixes are not used with much exactness —
and the final letter of the stem is usually, but not al-
ways, changed to o, i, or e.

THE VERB lOB

e.g. mlongola, a guide or superior {from kulongola, to
go before),
chipowo, a rent or hole (from kupoola, to bore).

One class of such nouns deserves special mention owing
to freedom with which it is used ; it has aflSnities with
the abstract, on the one hand, and the Dative, on the
other.

The prefix is always u- (abstract), and the final a is
always changed to e ; any verbal stem may be used at
will.

e,g, wiche (u-iche) {from -ika, coming),
waule, {from -jaula, going) y etc.

Idiomatically, these forms are preceded by wose, and
followed by a demostrative : —

e,g, wose wiche'uno icheleje alakwe^ (lit.) all this
coming I came for you^ i.e. I came on purpose
to see you,
wose waule'ula ajaulileje chelechi? Is this what
you went to fetch ?

Or they may be treated as nouns pure and simple,

e,g, wakanatande wele usyane'u, before they commenced

this forging,
au ujogoye'u, this frightfulness,
au utende'u, this way of daing, (hence) in this

manner.

Vocabulary.

kusajika (-sajiche), to place on top.

kuunika (-unichile), )

kuunichila (-unichile), / *^ ^^^'^' '^* ^^'^' « ^^«')-

kuugala pa (-ugele), to shut (e.g. a door or window),

kusyenga (-syenjile), to coil, wind round, hind,

kulumbikana (-lumbikene), to he conjoined.

104 A YAO GBAMMAB

kwanika (-janiche), to spi'ead out (e.g. clothesy flour, etc.).

kwegama (-jegeme), to lean against,

kota (-jotile), to warm oneself {at the fire, etc.).

kung^anda (-ng'andile), to play,

kuumula (-jumwile), to he dry,

kukoleka (-koleche)^ to hang up,

kuumila (-umile), to come from,

kupanda (-pandile), to sow, plant,

kupamba (-pambile), to light (a lamp),

kukolesya (-kolesisye), to light (a fire),

kugowola (-gowele), to reap (maize),

kutega (-tejile, -tesile), to set (a trap), to cock (a gun),

kutanjila (-tanjile), to he caught (in a trap),

kuwituka (-witwiche), to go off (of a trap).

ngwime (9), a kind of field-mouse,

mbugu (9), munjilo (2), a hole (of a mouse, rat, etc.).

lili^a (5), a rat trap (consisting of a fiat stone),

matimbe (6), a stream garden,

lutumba (11), a corner (of a house, etc.).

chigwenembe (7), a rat trap.

Exercise 41. Translate into English : —

(1) Tujendane; wamenyene; twamanyigene kusyene.
(2) Msajukule; mkasaunukula ; tutusyengukule. (3)
Mkulikwesya chichi ? Nalitawilile nyumba'jo namsyene ;
twalijigalile chelecho. (4) Mjaule kumwachiweni'ko ;
akachiwiche chelecho soni mwachisimene'mula. (5)
Nawakuyiye kwatisile'kula ; kweleko kumkwima'ko no
kunapandile mbeju.

Exercise 42. Translate into Chi Yao : —

(1) We have not seen each other; let them sit together ;
you always oblige each other (tr hear each other). (2) We
will unfasten ; gather up those clothes ; take away that
stick. Which one? That one which is leaning up
against the wall ; open the door. (3) I have been warm-
ing myself at the fire ; don't stand like that, straighten

THE VERB 105

yourself; I have cooked that food for myself. (4) Do
you know which way so-and-so went ? He went to the
village yonder where you bought the bananas ; he went
back to the village where he was bom ; look in the hole
in which you fell.

Exercise 43. Translate into English : —

" Ngwime syangajendajenda chuku, nambo chau.
Naga kuika chuku nekwinjila mu mbugu mwakwe,
kuliugalila mwelemo, chigonele mowa gosepe rapaka
kwika chau. Nekutanda kwendajenda kusa kukulokota
yakulya ikusigalila m'migunda katema ka gowola ; nipo
syelesyo sikupita mwelemo kulokota yakulya'yo kuji-
galila m'minjilo mwakwe kusalasya." " Nambo une
chitandilile, ngwime nganinijiwone upagwe wakwe."
** Nambo kanga umwe mkusaka kujimanya, kwende
tulongane none kumigunda, kweleko natejile maliwa
gawili liso. Pane tutukasimane sitanjile." "Elo, une
ngusaka kulongana nomwe.'' Nipo wajawile wosepe
pamo, nipo pawaiche kweleko wasimene maliwa'go gali
gawitwiche gosepe, mwelemo syatanjile ngwime siwili.
Nipo juelejo wamlanjile kuti, " Lolani, ngwime'sila asi."
Juelejo watite, ** Sambano nisimanye."

Exercise 44. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1)1 think it is going to rain, shut the door and gather
up those clothes. (2) Where shall I put them, as they
are not dry yet ? Put them on the top of that box. (3)
When you ai'e speaking to a European you must not lean
up against the door like that. (4) Shall I light the lamp
now ? Yes, then light the fire so that I can warm my-
self. (5) The children are playing together outside.
What are they doing ? (6) They are winding wire on to
a stick. (7) Where has this maize come from ? From
the stream garden at Msusa's, they always plant there

106 A TAO GRAMMAR

every year. (8) When do they reap it? In the middle
of the rainy season and at the beginning of the dry
season. (9) The rats have been eating this cloth [during
the] night. We wiU make a trap and set it in the comer
there. (10) Shut that box and put it under the bed.
Then hang up these clothes. Do not hang them up by
the little string, but on their hangers (itela).

CHAPTER XV.

1. Some Special Tenses.

(a) By prefixing -husa-, or -kuja-, to the stem and adding
the subjective pronoun, a tense is formed having the
meaning of " usually — ," or " be in the habit of — ^" : —

e.g. akusajaula, he usually goes,
ngusawala, I usually wear,
nde potukujajimba, that is why we sing.

The negative syllable (nga) may be used with this
construction : — •

e,g. ngakusajenda, he does not usually go,

(6) If the syllable -ta- be prefixed to the infinitive and
the pronoun added, the meaning " lest I (he, etc.) — " is
obtained : —

e,g, mkasajenda kweleko, mtakugwa, don^t walk there
lest you fall.
ngutujaula lelo, jitakwika ula, we won't go io-day
lest it rain.

(c) The addition of the continuative suffix -ga to the
preceding entirely changes the meaning, and indicates
that the action should (or will) be carried out, or con-
tinued, only after an interval, not immediately : —

e.g. mtakumalaga kanyuma'kano, ligulo'lino, finish
{this) later, this evening.
atakwaulaga ligulo, they may go later in the evening.

(107)

108 A YAO GBAMMAB

(d) The syllable -pa- prefixed to the stem of the verb
denotes ability to perform the action indicated by the
verb ; it may be used with any tense : —

e.g, nganapaika lelo, he covldnH come to-day.

tingapalembe 'chenene pangakawa, I shall soon
be able to write well.

2. Auxiliary Verbs.

Apart from the verb ku{ba, the use of which has
already been noted, there are two auxiliary verbs in
common use, viz. kutenda and kuti.

(a) The verb kutenda is used with the Infinitive of the
verb, in two meanings, according as the present or
perfect form is used.

The present has the meaning of " be in the act of — ,"
" be getting — ."

e.g. tutenda kusosa, we are looking for {it) turn.
sitenda kuwola, they are getting rotten.

It will be noted that the ku of the present is omitted, thus : —
Tutenda for tukutenda, ndenda for ngutenda.

The use of the perfect, present or past, gives the
meaning of really having done something, having done
it finally, or of having become so and so : —

e.g. ndesile kupela, I am quite tired out.
jatesile kunyowa, it had become wet.

The perfect is often abbreviated, thus: — Nde^kupela,
jate^kunyowa, etc. Similarly, twate^kumsalila, **we told
him once and for all."

(6) The verb kuti is used to give the meaning of " to
be about to — ," **to be just going to — ." The perfect
tenses, present and past, are used, with the subjunctive
of the verb governed : —

THE VERB 109

e,g, njite {or njiteje) ndye, I am just going to eat (i.e.
about to eat),
achite {or achiteje) ajaule, he is just going,
nachite ndole, I was just going to look,
twachite tujoje. we were about to bathe.

Note, — It is necessary to differentiate between " just " mean-
ing "about to — ," and "just" meaning "only": e.g, njiteje
ngalole, I am just going to look ; but, ngwamba kulola, I am just
looking {doing nothing else),

(c) The verb kuja, " to go," may be used as an auxiliary,
especially in old Yao : —

nganya'kawa, I shall not be long.

Similarly, mkaja'kawa, donH be long.

Note. — These examples seem to indicate the origin of the
emphatic negative forms of the subjunctive and future, j being
sometimes softened to s.

Compare also the following : —

ngemkaja mlola ! why donH you look {where you are
going) I

Sometimes euphonic changes take place, as : —

ngemkajo mpikana ! why donH you listen I
pakajo mbilanga, when I call you.

{d) Other verbs may also be used as auxiliaries, e.g.
'pata, " get " ; tupateje kwimanyilila, so that ive may under-
stand {something as yet incomprehensible),

kuu^ya, " to ask," is used in an idiomatic form, in reply
to a question. It indicates that the reply or statement
is an obvious one : —

Ana ku ^Nyasa kwambon^? Kweleko kwangalum-
bana akausya lyui^a lyejinji, is everything all
right at the lake ? {Of course) it is bad there
because of the drought.

110 A YAO GRAMMAB

wachite uli? Nganimbecheta najo akambusya
nganinimbona, what did he say ? I did not speak
to him, for as you know I did not see him.

tujaule kweleko, akausya msyene'jula juambone, let
us go there, it is well known that he is a good man.

3. The Participles.

(a) There are two forms of the present participle : —
(i) The locatives pa or mu may be prefixed to the
verbal noun : —

e.g. pakuichila kweleko, twagonile, arriving there^ we
stayed the night.
^ajimi apo, mkupumasika, they stood there,
panting.
This form of the participle is used alone when it refers
to the subject of a sentence but the appropriate tense of
the verb kutba must be added if it relates to the object,
thus forming the imperfect tense (page 71) : —

e.g. nambweni walijimkwaula, I saw him going.

tuti^asimane ^elei^o alimkulya, ive shall find
them eating.

(ii) Another form is in common use, viz. the sub-
jective personal pronoun with the syllable -chi-, prefixed
to the stem and the continuative suffix. The pronoun
m- is used for all classes, either singular or plural, except
the first, which is regular : — ^

njilolaga, (i) looking.

achiutukaga, {he) running.

tuchijimaga, {we) standing.

mchiwechetaga, {you) speaking.

i^achijimbaga, {they) singing.

mchitilaga, {it or they) running away.

^ The regular connective pronoun is occasionally used for
other classes than the first : e.g. chatemi chichilolaga (for chatemi
mchilolciga), " it sat looking."

-THE VBEB 111

e,g. twajimi tuchidodomaga, we stood hesitating.

syapite mchiutukagaj they {game) passed running.

(6) There is no true past participle, the present per-
fect or verbal adjective being used in its stead : —

e.g. twamsimene auwile, we found him dead.

More iditomatically the verb kwCba is used in such
constructions : —

e.g. twamsimene ali auwile, tbe found him dead.
So also twaiche ali ajawile, we cams after he had gone
(i.e. we found him gone).

Vocabulary.

kutemangula (-temangwile), to break.

kupilipita (-pilipitile), to wriggle ahoutj struggle.

kutandika (-tandiche), to spread out.

kunyo^a (-nyo^e^e, -nyo^ile), to be wet.

ku^eluka (-^elwiche), to stop work.

kusulula (-sulwile), to leak.

kuwimba (-wimbile), to thatch.

kuutala (-utele), to be overgrown (with grass).

kupuga (-pujile), to blow (of wind).

kupepesya (-pepesye), to inflate.

kunya (-nyele), to fall (of rain).

kucha (-chele), to dawn, clear up (after rain).

kuswa (-swele), to set (of the sun).

sal, thus,

chipo^o (4), a small hole, opening (in a fence).

lutenje (6), a fence. *

liundika (5), catarrh, bronchitis.

Exercise 45. Translate into English : —

(1) Mkatandika nguo'syo pelepo, sitakunyowa. (2)
Wandu wakusatenda iyoyo mowa gosepe nambo. (3)
Aweluche sambano, watakulimaga soni lyuwa lyati sai.
(4) Tukasume utande kwa Mandala, weula utenda kumala.

112 A YAO GRAMMAR

(6) Njiteje nyaule sambano, nauweni unandwipe. (6)
Ngetugopola soni kweleko, nde'kutawa. (7) Po namlo-
lite umwe po mwaikaga nipo natiji nyaule kumangwetu.

(8) Libeketi'li {bucket) likwete chipowo, litenda kusulula.

(9) Ngulwala liundika. None juakwe ngusalw^ala chnku.

(10) Nambweni Che Bula alimkulima m'mgunda mwao.

(11) Wakongwe waiche wachijimbaga, wanache mkukuya
munyuma. (12) Sambano kuchele, kwende ku masengo.

Exercise 46. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1) Thatch the roof carefully lest it leak. (2) Go and
hoe the road, it is getting overgrown. (3) Come for a
walk with me. I am just going to have some food {tr. to
eat). (4) I was about to pay the people when I saw you
coming. (5) We have really finished. (6) I usually get
up very early, but I was tired to-day. (7) Looking care-
fully everywhere, I saw the elephant standing near a
tree breaking off the branches. (8) Tie that bunch of
bananas carefully, lest it fall ; there is a high wind to-
day. (9) Have you built that fence? We have not
finished yet. (10) Why are you just sitting here, then ?
We will continue to build it later, we are just going to
have a drink. (11) The buck fell struggling on the
ground. (12) It is sunset now and it is raining, let us
sleep here.

r

CHAPTER XVI.

THE PERFECT TENSE.

As already stated, the changes which take place in the
stena of the verb in the formation of this tense are best
learnt empirically, each form with its stem and meaning.
There are, however, indications of a general rule, especi-
ally in roots having more than two syllables, and all can
be arranged in groups with only a few exceptions. It
has seemed worth while, therefore, to attempt a classi-
fication as an aid to memory.

1. Most verbs of more than two syllables form their
perfect in the same way, modified only by the usual
euphonic changes. The last syllable -'a {-la, -na, -ka,
'Sya, etc.) changes to -i'e (-i7^, -ine, -ichCf -isye, etc.), or
-e*e after i enultimate e or o : —

e.g. -jigala (can-y), = -jigaile = -jigele.

-kongola {borrow), = -kongoele = -kongwele.
-sagula (choose), = -saguile = -sagwile.
-manyilila (know), = -manyiliile = -manyilile.
-dandaula (grumble), = -dandauile = -dandawile.
-pikana (hear), -pikaine = -pikene.
'dodoma, (hesitate), = -dodoeme = -dodweme.
-kopoka (go out), = -kopoeche = -kopweche.
-jimika (set up), = -jimiiche = -jimiche.
-papuka (be torn), = -papuiche = -papwiche.
-poteka (huH), = -poteeche = -poteche.
-kumbusya (remind), = -kumbuisye == -kumbwisye.
-sichita (cut), — -sichiite =» -siehite.
-panganya (make), = -pangainye = -pangenye.

(113) 8

114 A YAO GBAMMAR

Notes, — (a) Only a few verbs of more than two syllables form
their perfect by changing the final -a to -tie. These include : —

(i) Some roots adopted from other languages.

(ii) Onomatopoetic forms : — e.g. -mumunya, -mimina, etc.

(iii) A few verbs in -nda, -nga, -nya : e.g. -salamanday -simongay
-lumenyaf etc.

(6) A few multisyllabic words in -nga and 4a form their
perfect in -sile: — *

e.gf. -chelenga (go fast), -cheresile.
-jonanga (spoil, waste), -jonasile.
-jamila (scream), -jamisile.

2. The majority of verbs of two syllables form their
perfect by changing the final -a to -ile. Those whose
final consonant is g, change this to j : —

e.g. -tai^a (tie), -ta^ile.
-longa (pack), -lonjele.

Notes. — (a) Those which end in -ga, -la, and -nda (and a few
in -ka) soften their final consonant, or consonants, to s : —

e.g. -jenda (walk), -jesile.
-mala (finish), -masile.
-laga (he poor), -lasile.
-leka (leave), -lesile.

(b) Verbs- of two syllables in -aya .change this syllable to

'Sisye : —

e.g. -usya (ask), -usisye.

-isya (sigh), -isisye.

Some verbs of more than two syllables ending in -sya also
follow this rule : — e.g. -ganisya ("think") -ganisisye, and some
others.

(c) Some verbs in -ya and -wa change to -yiye, -wiwe (or

-wewe) : —

e.g. -kuya (pursue), kuyiye.

-nyo^a (be wet), -nyowe^e.

(d) The following are common exceptions to the above
rules : —

-wala (wear), -wete.

-lola (look), -lolite.

THE PERFECT TENSE 115

-kola (have)y -kwete.

-jima (8tand)y -jimi.

-tama (sit), -temi.

-wona («ee), -weni.

-ti (sayjf -chite, -tite, or -tiji.

3. Practically, the difficulty of these Perfect forms is
in determining the stem from a given Perfect, rather
than vice versa. The following " tips " may be useful : —

In the final syllables of a Perfect form : —
'We- has usually been -o-.

-e- „ „ -e- or -a-.

'te „ „ -la,

'Sile „ „ -nda, -ga^ -la^ or (rarely) -ha.

Final -e or -i has always been -a.

e,g, -papwile : — wi = u, final e = a ; = -papula,
-songenye : — e = a, final e = a ; = -songanya.
-lokwete :-^we = o, final e = a ; = -lokota.

-sasile : sile = -la, = -sala.

ndesile : sile = -nda, -ga, or -ka ; d = t or 1.

= -tenda, -tega, or leka.

Exercise 47. Give the Perfect tense of the following
verbs (stem only) : —

(1) -wika ; -wanganya ; -pisya ; -pokosola ; -soya ;
-wola. (2) -tenda ; -kodola ; -tuta ; -tawila ; -pindika.

(3) -swekula ; -nyenga ; -pitikusya ; -ng'wa ; -matula.

(4) -papula ; -pakama ; -lya ; -nunga ; -nyosya.

Exercise 48. Give the stem of the following verbs : —

(1) -liyiye ; -limbiche ; -lewipe ; -lasile. (2) -tojime ;
-pochele ; -pindwiche ; -galawisye ; -pangenye ; -tokwete.

(3) -lindilile ; -patwile ; -komweche ; -pasisye ; -nokwele.

(4) -kusile ; -Iwasile ; -mosile ; -ngwiye.

APPENDIX I.
FORMS OF ADDRESS.

1. The use of the plural in Yao for the sake of ttchimbe-
chimbe ("politeness") is so common, and, moreover, so
apt to be puzzling to a beginner, that it deserves special
notice." It extends to all the variable parts of speech,
nouns, adjectives, verbs, and pronouns.

Nouns. Relationships are always put in the plural.
Thus : akulu ^angu, my elder brother,

alamu ^enu, your brother-in-law.

As a rule the prefix acha, achiy is reserved for the true
plural, but even this is open to exception.

Thusjuamkongwe ('* a woman ") is rarely heard except in
the meaning ** female," the plural form tbakongwe being
preferred. Achakongwe (or achambumba) is used for the
plural," women."

ApjECTiVES, of course, agree with the noun.

Verbs. As has already been noted, the 3rd person,
singular or plural, is often used in place of the more
direct 2nd person. Thus degrees of politeness may be
employed in the following order : —

Imperatively : —

(1) 2nd person sing. Subjunctive (familiar, and to

children).

(2) The singular Imperative.

(3) The plural Imperative.

(116),

FORMS OF ADDEESS 117

(4) The 2nd person plural Subjunctive.

(5) The 3rd person Subjunctive.

(6) The Subjunctive form in n — .

(7) The Subjunctive form in n — , with the applied

form of the verb.

For other tenses : —

(1) The 2nd person singular (familiar).

(2) The 2nd person plural.

(3) The 3rd person singular or plural.

Pronouns. Here again the 3rd person is often used for
the 2nd, -akwe, or -ao, for -enu; waoy {balakwe^ or even
hweleho, for umwe.

2. Polite forms of address are : —

atati, achimwene, equivalent to " Sir '^ (irrespective

of relationship).
bwana from Swahili, equivalent to "Sir."
ambuje, in adressing an old man or chief.
husyeto, ambuje, in addressing an old woman.
chemwaliy in addressing a young woman.

Che-, prefixed to the name, is an honorific never
omitted by the Yao; indeed, among natives, it is an
insult to do so.

This prefix is occasionally used for women, near relat-
ives of chiefs.

The Swahili (Arabic) custom of using the father's name
is very general now : wadi, or bin (son of) ; biti, or binti
(daughter of) being prefixed. The son of a chief is often
greeted by his father's (tribal) name.

3. In seeking admittance : —

Hodi ? (Ans,) Hodini {Swahili),
Amo ? „ E-e-e ! or apite.

118

A TAO GBAMMAB

4. Greetings: —

Ana mkwimukaga ? How do you do ? Are you
quite well ? {Ans.) Kwimukaga.

Ana kutusimana? or Ana tusimene? How are
you? (Ans.) Kwasimana, nowe kumangwetu
twaliji chigonele, or licheje kumlola, or Eti,
twaBimene, tutite tupite mchijendajenda, or
Eti twasimene, tutite tukakunguluche, or E-e-e !
{and gives the news).

' kwatyochele ?

Ana kwambone
Ana kuchele
Ana ukotope

kwaumile ?
kumusi ?
kumangwao ?
^ kweleko?

(kwambonepe.
kuchelepe. .
ukotope.
u / kwangalumbana,
° ' \ nganikuwa kwambone.

To a 2nd person : —

Ana kutenda iyoyo ? (ans.) E-e-e !

On leaving : —

Asigaleje, sambano ngwaula

kumangwetu.
or Ambuje, tukungulwiche,

tukuujila panyuma.
or Tusimaneje.
or Twalesile, tukunguluche

malawi.
or Tinimsimane kuridawi.

(ans.) E-e-e !
or Ajauleje,
kwe'tusindi-
chisye.
or Jaulagani.

6.' A man who is going to tell a story says : " Tele " {i.e.
full), and the people answer, " Lokote, loJcote, haseh ndi I

FORMS OF ADDRESS 119

Lakata / " ^ He then proceeds with the story. When he
has finished, he says, ^^Nganimba 'ne nyimbile, ajimbile
Che Lisimu {i.e. the old people)." The audience replies,
" Ajokole chitolo, chitakununga / " ^

A man who is going to propound a riddle says,
^^Ndawi" His hearers reply, ^' Jiiche,'^ He then asks
the riddle.

* "Pick it up, the basket is full, heaped up to overflowing! "
Compare the English, " He was full of his story."

« Literally, " Take the rat off the fire, lest it cause a smell (of
burning)." The origin of this is obscure.

APPENDIX 11.

KELATION SHIPS.

It is difficult to find English words by which one can
translate the Yao terms describing relationships, as the
whole system is different. A reference to the application
in Yao of the word atati (generally translated "father")
will be quite suflBcient to illustrate the diflBculty {v, infra),

(1) The children of two brothers or of two sisters are
regarded as too closely related for marriage ; they regard
each other as own brothers and sisters. The children of
an elder brother or sister are all regarded as seniors by
the children of the younger, whatever the respective ages
of these children,

It follows, then, that a man (or woman) will regard,
and refer to, the children of his brother (or sister) as
mwanangu (**my child").

On the other hand, the children of a brothenand sister
are regarded as cousins {asiwani), and not only are per-
mitted to marry each other, but are encouraged to do so.

So far it is fairly straightforward. A complication
arises, however, from the rule that the husband or wife
of an aZaww must be a "brother" or "sister." For in-
stance, the wife of a brother-in-law of one's brother is
regarded as a " sister. *' So also the wife or husband of
an msi'Cbani is called "sister" or "brother."

(2) A man's heir is his sister's son (usually the eldest
son of the eldest sister, but not necessarily) ; any sister's

(120)

RELATIONSHIPS 121

child may be called chipwa changu ("my nephew" or
'* niece "), though often the term is reserved for the man's
heir only. The man's heir is referred to as mtuipwagwao.
A chipwa refers to his maternal uncle as akwelume ; on
succeeding to his name and possessions he may marry
his uncle's wife or wives, but not if he has already
married one of their children (i.e. his msiibani),

(3) (a) "BROTHER" (i.e. achimwene, akuluwangu or
mpwanga of a man ; achimwene or alumhu of a woman ;
see note (i), infra) includes : — own brother (by the same
father or mother), and the husbands of his wife's
"sisters"; son^of paternal uncles and maternal aunts,
and the husbands of their wife's " sisters " ; husbands of
female asiihani {q,v,) ; male asiibani of wife (or husband) ;
husbands of wife's (or 'husband's) own sisters; husbands
of the daughters of the paternal uncles and maternal
aunts of wife (or husband); husbands of a "sister's"
husband's "sisters."

(b) "SISTER" (i.e. chemwali or alumhu of a man,
chemwali or mpwanga of a woman, see note (i), infra) in-
cludes : — own sister (by the same father or mother), and
the wives of her husband's "brothers"; daughters of
paternal uncles and maternal aunts, and the wives of
their husband's ** brothers " ; wives of male asiibani (q.v,) ;
female asitbani of wife (or husband) ; wives of wife's (or
husband's) own brothers ; wives of the sons of the pater-
nal uncles and maternal aunts of wife (or husband);
wives of "brother's" wife's "brothers."

(c) AT ATI includes : — own father, paternal uncles and
aunts (the latter distinguished as atati 'Cbakongwe ; a pa-
ternal uncle older than one's father is distinguished as
atati ibakulungwa, one younger, as atati ^anandi) ; wife's
(or husband's) father ; wife's (or husband's) paternal uncles
and aunts, — distinguished as above; husbands of own

122 A TAO GBAMMAB

and wife's (or husband's) aunts, both paternal and
maternal.

In addition, though the relationship is really akwego,
the following are usually termed atati : the husbands of
female achiwana and achiwesukulu (q^v,), and husbands of
own daughters.

(d) AMBUJE ("grandfather") includes all grand rela-
tions of self and of wife (or husband), and their wives.
Great-grandparents may be defined by means of com-
pound terms, such as achikuluibao ambuje, ambuje woo
ambuje, etc.

(e) A MAO and achikulu- {-wangu, -ibao^ etc.) refers to
one's own mother or her sisters ; the latler are usually
defined as amao ibanandi, or ibakulungwa according to
age (cf. atati).

(/) MSI'^ANI is the best defined of all terms; it re-
fers only to the children of paternal aunts or of maternal
uncles.

(g) ALAMU IB the term used for the wives of " brothers "
{q»v,)y and the husbands of " sisters " {q.v,).

Note, — " Brothers " and " sisters " of wife (or husband) are
therefore alamu since their wives are " sisters," and their hus-
bands, "brothers*' respectively.

{h) AKWEQO is the general term for relationships
by marriage which are more distant than alamu. The
term is, strictly speaking, reciprocal. It includes : wife
of an uncle, both maternal and paternal, or the children
of wife's (or husband's) "brother" or "sister"; wife's
(or husband's) " amao,^^ " daughter's " husband or " son's "
wife (see also atati, and a^hi'(bana) ; wife of wife's (or
husband's) uncle on both sides, or husbands and wives of
the children of a husband's "brothers" and "sisters";
wives or husbands (but see atati) of achiwesukulu, and
lastly, the wives of male a^hiibana {q-v,). (The ambuje of

RELATIONSHIPS 123

a wife or husband is usually called ambuje, and the pa-
ternal uncle of a husband is usually called atati),

(i) MWANANGU {-pi, achi'(banangu) maybe translated
as *' my * son ^ " or " my ' daughter ' " ; it includes : own
children, and children of "brother" or " sister" (q,v.).

(j) CHISUKULU {pi, achiwesukulu) or mwisukuluwangu
("my grandchild") includes: own grandchildren, and
grandchildren of " brother " or " sister."

Notes.

(i) The term mlumhu is used only by a " brother " of his
" sister/* or (rarely) vice versa ; a woman will use the term c/t«-
mwali for an elder " sister," and mpwanga or amwali for a younger
one. A girl usually refers to her " brother " as achimwene even
if he be younger than she ; in defining relationship she calls
the youngest " brother ' ' achimwene 'Cbanandi, the second of three
" brothers," achimwene iba chilikati, and so on. A boy refers to
his elder " brother " as achimwene or akuluwangu, and to his
younger as mpwanga. These terms imply seniority, and may
be used among (Mhalongo irrespective of age.

A boy refers to his " sister " as chemwali or alumhuwangu ;
to his " sisters " collectively mwanjawo chemwali,

(ii) The youngest of a family is often referred to as juaku-
maligya maibele; the eldest as jua kwitiibo. The children of one
man or one woman are known as ^ana kajumo,

(iii) The founder of a family is known as likolo ; this term
may also be used of a great-grandfather.

(iv) The term chisukulu (mioisukuluwangu, " my grandchild *')
is, properly, only used as already defined. Great "grand-
children " should be referred to as chisukulu cha munyuma or
cha m*mauja, though in practice these terms are merely defini-
tive.

A grandson is often addressed as mpwanga and a grand-
daughter as asonowangu,

(v) Achiibawako comprises all degrees of relationship not per-
mitted to marry. It includes all those given, except asi^bani and
achiwesukulu (but see also par. (2)).

124 A YAO GBAMMAB

(vi) Nangolo ("a parent," pi. achinarMfolo) includes father
and his " brothers " and " sisters " (o. wa chilume), mother and
her " brothers *' and " sisters ** (a. wa chikongwe),

(vii) Wese may be used as synonymous with atati, but it is
more often used to denote " own father." It will never be used
for the complimentary " atati " ( = akwego),

(viii) Asonogo (Asono-wangUj -wao, etc.), or wamkwangu (wam-
kwaoy etc.), are terms used only for a man*s own wife or potential
wife.

Kusyeto is a term of respect, and may be used of any woman.

«

(ix) Ulongo is equivalent to the English word " family."
Mlongo is the abbreviated form of mu ulongo, " in the family " ;
that is the reason that it requires mjakwe, ^^ his companion "
(pi. ajoko)y instead of the possessive pronoun,— miongfo mjakwe
{mjangu, etc.), " his (my, etc.) relative " (pi. achalongo ajao).

For a fuller account of the Yao system of relationships the
reader is referred to the author's paper in the " Journal of the
Royal Anthropological Institute," 1921.

APPENDIX III.

1. Adverbial Nouns.

There is in Yao a part of speech which has no parallel
in English, but which is most* nearly defined by the term
Adverbial Noun. It has the form of a noiin, but is used
to qualify the verb. It may have the prefix of almost
any class of noun, but chi- is the most common.

e.g. watemi chinamile, he sal hanging his head (i.e.
mournfully),
kwenda chisyeu, to walk loitering, i.e. to loiter,
meno gatenda ululu, my teeth are on edge,
natipe lupwapwa, it is fiat-sided.

Note, — It is often difficult to decide whether a word should
be classed as an Adverbial Noun or as an onomatopoeic form
(see following paragraph).

2. Onomatopceic Forms.

The picturesqueness of the Bantu languages is almost
entirely due to the wealth of onomatopoeic forms, and
to the freedom with which they are used. What could
be more expressive, for instance, than the term ngwihwi
for " hiccough," or chwee ! for the sound of hot iron
dipped into water?

The native, however, goes beyond the mere dictionary
meaning of the word " onomatopoeic " ; not only does he
express in words impressions produced on the sense of
hearing, but also on all the other senses. Witness : njo I
expressive of prominence ; nyanyi, of stalking ; tililili, of

(125)

126 A TAO GRAMMAR

smoothness (satiny); lyolyolyo, of sweetness; and a
hundred others.

The Bantu illustrates his meaning by means of these
expressions, accompanied by a wealth of gesture, and,
indeed, they form the base of his articulate speech. The
majority of them, however, are used at the fancy of the
speaker, and it is therefore impossible to give arbitrary
meanings to all of them ; their very nature, expressing
as they do, the impression produced on the individual,
precludes any hard and fast meanings being attached to
them.

When these forms are used for the purpose of descrip-
tion, as opposed to illustration, the auxiliary verb kuti is
employed in conjunction : —

e,g, nguo jati pyu ! red cloth.

nyama siluwimwile kuputu kuputu! the herd
went off at full gallop.

atemi mwipenu, pe-e ! chilambo chosepe cha-
woneche mpela musi, mwesi natipe mbe !
Mwitiwi nipo wapikene t^andu kwa CheKalino
t^alijimkuwina ung'asi wao, di ! di ! di !, kwa !
kwa!

he sat in the verandah all ahne, the country as
plain as day in the bright moonlight^ and in the
valley below he heard Kalino's people dancing,
the beat of the drums, and the clapping.

APPENDIX IV.
TABLE OF CONCORDS.

Compound

with copula

ndi-

d

1

d

o

d

•rH

d

a

d

d

o

73

d

o

* ^"^

73

d

O

>>

1— 1

73

d

Sd
•f-i

73

d

O

d

• >-(

d

O
•i-i

o
d

73

d

O

• «-(

73

d

.3

d

1

• f-l
73

d

•f-i
73

d

d

o

a

73

d

Compound

with na,

"and, with."

o
d

1

o

d

o
d

0)

a

o

d

1

d

1

d

o

'cQ*

d

I.

d

1

d

o

-§

d

1

d

o

d

1

d

o

1—1

cd

d

1

a

1

d

1

cd
d

cd

d

a

cd
d

o

a

cd
d

1^

J

1

m

e

1

0)

d

P

1

o

d

1

a

d

1

i

o

I.

13

1

o

o

o

CD

o

l8

S

Cd

o

cd

i

o

a

cd

o

d

Cd

1
d

1

^

1
d

1

a

d

•r- »

•f-i

Sd

•rH

• iH

•d

QQ

d

d

+3

cd

d

d
44

cd

d

a

1

4i

00

5

08*

c3

c8

•«-(
IS

jS

•>-(

o

c3

•3

•«-(
OQ

d

Cd

Cd
cd

Id

-3

cd

1

cd

1

cd

cd

d

a

cd

i

J2i

d
•5?

i

•1-1

•1-4
Is

■1-1

•1-4

• «-(

•5?

• «-(
QQ

5-

cd

1

cd

g

d

1

d

a

cd

Adjectival
Prefix.

d

•r— »

1

1

O

1

a

C8^

1

..-1

13

E

1

•rH

1

1
•i-i

•1— »

d

■r-»

1

•«-(

QQ

cd

QQ

1

d
>>

QQ

1

d

1

1

d

1

•4A

1

cd

1

1

,24

1
cd

1

1

d

a

cd

a

1

c3

^
^

•r— »

!>

S)

^

•r— »

CS
>>

QQ

•4A

cd

Cd

a

a

«

d
t-5

d

•1— »

•«-(

c3

tie

•f-i

• iH

• r-l
•1— ^

OQ

d

d

cd

d

S

a.

d

.•»

1

•

1

1

d

a

a

1

a

,d

,

s

1
I"

r

a

1
•1-4

a

1
•f-i

1

a

•f-i

1

1

1

d

d

d

1

d

1

cd

M

1
d

i

a

1

a

1

•

•

•

I— 1

•

>

•

l-H

•

•

1— 1

M

><

•

1— 1

•
l-H
1— 1

m

l-H
1— 1
1— 1

X

•

•

I— 1

•
l-H
l-H

(127)

APPENDIX V.
THE DEMONSTRATIVES.

•

O

g

8

i
1

o

P

¥

•1— »

o

1

1

O

P

i

O

P

•r- »

o
p

I

P

-§

o

p

O

P

• i-H

QD

o

p

p

1

+3

c9

0)

o

p
p

p

O

P

oe

P

s

•

1

o

a

t

O

P

o

p

o

p

O

P

c6

o

p

o

p

cQ

o

p

•5-

O
P

• •-H

o

p
p

IS

o

p

p

1q

O

P

o

p

i

O

P
P

s

ce

o
p

p

e

ce

1

P

a

•

•

S3

1

■p

c3

c8

f

IS

iS

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^

APPENDIX VI.
VERBAL PREFIXES.

1. Nga- {ngi-, nge-, ngu , ngo-),

(1) Neg. Relative, juangalola, one who does not

look,

(2) Neg. Present, ngalola, he does not look.

(3) Neg. Future, ngalola, he will not look,

(4) Incomplete, nganalole, he has not yet looked,

(5) Negative Past, nganalola^ he has not looked,

(6) Past Conditional, angalole, if he had looked,

(7) Pres. Contingent, angalolaga, he would be looking,

(8) Past Contingent, angalolite, he would have looked,

(9) Neg. Contingent, ngfakanalola, he would not have

looked,
(10) The 1st Person Sing, of :—

(a) Neg.Subjunct., ngalola., lest I look,

ngfasalola, I must not look,

(b) Emphatic Subj., ngalole, I must look,

(c) 2nd Future, tingalole, I will go and look,

(d) Present Indie, ngulola, I look,

(e) Habitual Present, ngusalola, I usually look.
(/) Incomplete, nginindole, be/ore I looked,

2. Chi-.

(1) Distant Future, tachilo^a, he will look,

(2) Present Participle, achilolaga, looking,

(3) Continuative, (ali) chilolite, {he is) still looking,

(4) Retrospective, chilolite, since he looked,

(5) Agreement with 5th

Class, ■ chilolite, it [has) looked,

(129) 9

M

if he look.

130 A YAO GRAMMAR

3. Na-

(1) Pres. Conditional, nalole,

nakulola,
nalolaga, ^

(2) Imperative, nalole, look I

(also nale).

(3) Ist Person Sing, of: —

(a) Past Imperfect, nalolaga, I was looking.

(b) Past Perfect, nalolite, I looked.

APPENDIX VII.

IDIOMS.

1. It is not proposed to attempt to give a list of the
many true idioms which occur in ChiYao, and only a
few of the more common are given as examples, such
as: —

nginingola ponyawile, / have not been there at all,
nginingola ponambweni, I have not seen him at all,
ngapagwa ponamputile, I have never struck him,
nganimugwa mwa mundu, he is very ill,
umwe mwangali umundu, you are as obstinate as a

mule,
iwele ya chanasa, or une juangali chilapo, I am sorry

{on hearing bad news),
kwana ukulu'kula, all this time ; these many days,
timkole gakola, you are '* looking for trouble,'^
lose luno, up to now, hitherto,
tinimpe lichakapitu, III give it him (or you), after

many years (i.e. nev&r),
umwejo mbepulo sya wandu, you are the sweepings of

the earth,
yachi une ? What do I care ?
ambi papi ? I told you so I

itakupagwaga patauje asyene, we shall see what hap-
pens when the master returns,
kuliwona uleu msingu, to get " a swelled head,"
kuHnonyesya ujete, to force one's company {friendship,

etc.) on anybody,
nale (nalole), look I

(131)

132 A YAO GRAMMAR

2. In common with other Bantu languages, there are,
in ChiYao, a large number of expressions which may be
classed as idioms, but which are mostly used equivocally,
so as to veil the meaning from anyone overhearing them.
This is known as " kuwecheta chining' a^*^ and some natives
are extraordinarily quick in catching the meaning, even
if they have not heard the expression before.

For example, I once heard a native say to another, on
leaving, *' Che Ndumundu agonile m*mapanje," The word
mapanje might mean the hill of that name, or "the
gardens." Literally, then, this remark would mean
nothing more than that a certain man had slept at the
gardens, or at Mapanje, whereas mapanje is here used as
a derivative of -panga (" fix a day," " agree on a course
of action"), and so the meaning conveyed to the hearer
was, " Come and talk over the matter with me."

On another occasion, when passing some natives
who were chatting together, I heard one say, '* Gagogo
gagwiUr^ (literally, "those same things have fallen").
The man to whom he spoke at once lapsed into silence,
and on enquiry I found that the word to which gagogo
referred was mapwetechela (" tomatoes "), which, being red,
indicated a European. The expression was, therefore,
intended as a hint that a European was present, and
discretion was-advisable.

Occasionally one hears a word completely inverted
(by syllables), as ndkau for ukana; it is obvious that
examples of this expedient might be multiplied inde-
finitely.

3. Another tjrpe of idiom is more of the nature of a
proverb, and is usually derived from folklore.

For example: "e/a Mchochoma jawosile mkuinila mak-
walu^' (here the word nyama is understood), "Mcho-

IDIOMS 133

choma's meat went bad through the mdkwalu dance."
Moral against delay.

Another saying is, ^^ Anamhawala wawilile galausya"
the verb -wila meaning " lay the blame on an innocent
person," galausya being used adverbially ; hence, " Mr.
Bushbuck sufiered for the fault of another." Often used
to point a moral against interference.

REVISION EXERCISES.

1. Translate into English: —

(1) Ngusaka wandu wajinji wakulima m'mgunda'mo.
(2) Ana umwe mkuja kwapi? une nguja ku lusulo ku-
koga. (3) Ana chichi chikununjila m'nyumba'muno ?
Jikununjila nyama, asono wangu alimkujiteleka. (4)
Ali Utuku'li litenda kupoteka. (5) Mapemba gatenda
kumala njuwa ni ijuni. (6) Lelo kukusisima 'chenene,
kwangali chitukuta. (7) Une ngwaula ku Chiwambo
kusuma wonga. (8) Uwe tukusaka kwaula ku Mangoni ;
nambo une ngengusaka. (9) Ana mkusaka yakulya?
Ngwamba, ngusalya kundawipe. (10) Masimba gaku-
saichila ku musi pakati chilo. (!}) Ana umwe mkuku-
mbuchila yitwawechete liso^yila? Ngwamba, ngongu-
manyiUla. (12) Une nguganisya kuti mkutenda melepe,
ligongo mkumanyilila 'chenenepe. (13) Libweta'li ku-
sitopa, ndenda kulepela kujigala. (14) Sambano une
ngusaka gona, ndenda gwesela. (15) Mbatata syangu
sitenda kuwola ni kupukuswa. Mkusalasya syenu
mwapi? Ngusawika m'lukole, pampepe petaka. (16)
Mesi gajumilile sambano pachisima'po, nipo wandu
watandite kusola chine cha sambano. (17) Ana mwi-
bweta'mula mtasile chichi ? Mwangali kandu. (18) Lelo
kutesile bata, mbungo ngijikupuga; jichesisye ula chilo
chosepe mpaka kucha. (19) Awa akusaka kumenyana
none, nambo une nginimbecheta malowe gakusakala.
(20) Napo pana mowa mcheche pakutyochela pa Zomba
pakujs^ ku Chisyungule. (21) Ngosyo sipali papajinji,
syasimale likumi.

(134)

EEVISION EXERCISES 135

2. Translate into ChiYao : —

(1) They do not want work, they always stay in their
villages. (2) But those who are used to working do not
stay long at home. (3) This is very good grass, it is ex-
cellent for thatching. (4) What is the matter with you ?
My back hurts me. (5) I don't quite understand what
you say, because I do not speak [your language] often.
(6) What are you always thinking about? Nothing; I
am just sitting by myself. (7) This man puzzles me;
he looks like a Zomba man. No, he does not belong to
Zomba, but to Mlanje. (8) Hyaenas live in this cave.
(9) What are you laughing at? (10) I don't want the
cassava, it is bitter. (11)1 am suffering from bronchitis,
I am always coughing; I am going to ask for some
medicine. I usually get ill in the rainy season. (12)
Those reeds are all quite burnt up now. (13) My wife
has gone to the gardens to gather some pumpkins. (14)
Who has uprooted this tree? Nobody, it was blown
down during the night by the wind. (15) There are only
a few people, where are the rest? (16) There is water
in this stream only during the rains ; there is nothing
but sand in the hot weather.

3. Translate into English: —

(1) Une tiiche kumangwenu kukujuga nyama. (2)
Chambone, timusimane tingamkatile chiiga. (3) Une
ngingokowa, tiiche sambano. (4) Ana mesi'go gatokwete ?
Ngwamba, nginigatokote, gatenda kutanda. (5) Mkusaka
kujuga mtela kuti m'ngVe? Jugani, pane tampe; li-
ndililani, asyene mtela nganaiche. (6) Mtela'u mtaje
mlisolosololi, mjigale ; nambo patimkamale mtela,
mkauje nalyo. (.7) Nyumba jangu jimasile, tingone lelo.'
(8) Wandu awa watasile chichi mungalala'mo ? Wata-
sile any^ioi (onions) jua malonda. (9) Ana mtengo wakwe

136 A YAO GRAMMAB

uli ? Mbiya sitatu lukalala lumo. Une tisume lukalala
luine. (10) Namyikaga kumasikusiku, une tingagonej^.

(11) Ana mikalo'jila mpukwite? Elo, mbukwite josepe.

(12) Kuchele, kwende ku masengo. (13) Sambano waku-
lima wawelwiche, lyuwa liichile pepenga. (14) Ana
wani wamenyeneje lelo mwitala'mu? Kwalini wandu
wakwe, une ngingwamanyilila. (15) Mumjigale mwana-
che, mkagoneche pa chindanda. (16) Mbugale pa hema,^
jitakwinjila ula. (17) Walakwe, kwende, tukakate mi-
swache. Chambone tiiche, nambo ngawale nguo jine,
ngasajipapula ajino. (18) Mwanache waliji chiimile pa
mlango, kujilola ula, nipo katema kakoko wajiweni ula
jilirakucha. (19) Pakuuja nasimene nyumba jangu ja-
jitawe, nipo msonogo mchiteleka yakulya, nambo wa
masengo waliji chisyasyajilile mapupa. (20) Nipo na-
chite, *•' Ngutupagona m'nyumba'muno lelo, tukasalwala;
ligongo matope nganagajumule." (21) Kusowela nde
kuwika, kusuka nde kulijasa.

4. Translate into ChiYao :—

(1) If I had known that you were coming, I would
have cooked more food. Never mind, I left after having
had some food at home. (2) It has been raining ever
since we arrived. (3) I don't want this cloth but that
one over there ; no, that one [which you have] just tied
up. (4) When they saw me on the path, I was just
sitting there, doing nothing. (5) Call the children [and
tell them] to come here, and yourself as well, let us go
to the other side together to buy some flour. (6) My
elder brother is going to Zomba, and I shall go with him
to see the old lady. (7) Other people have begun to reap
the maize, [so] we will also begin [to do so]. (8) I
bought these beads for myself at the store of the Banian

1 Hema — tent (Swah.)

BEVISION EXEBCISES 137

with whom we always deal. (9) I am going to the bush,
and you may as well come with me. (10) Beckon that
man to come here. (11) Bring some fresh leaves for us
to sit on. The red ants are biting here. (12) Where are
the others ? They have been left behind. (13) Show us
the way to Chikala, I am going to see my brother. (14)
Haven't the rickshaw men come yet ? Not yet, they are
on their way ; they will turn up this evening. (15) Let
some of you go and hurry up the rest. There is nobody
here, they have gone to cut firev/ood. (16) Have they
all gone to cut firewood ? No, some of them are washing
clothes at the river. (17) Send those people away, they
must not come here.

5. Translate into English : —

(1) Tujesile kusyene, sambano tupumule. Elo, tusose
uwilili wambone, wangali lyuwa. (2) Walakwe, mjendeje
chenene apano miwa tijimsome. (3) Une mbulele chala
changu, chilimkupoteka. Ana mbulele ni chichi ? Naku-
wele petala'po. (4) Ana kumangwao kwambone ? Ngini-
mbikane malowe ga kweleko ligongo natyosile kalakala,
nipo indu ya kweleko ngingwimanyilila chenene. (5)
Lelo tutulonjele panopano, tugone mowa gawili. (6) Ana
pakutyoka akuno pakuja ku Blantyre, akugona igono
ilingwa mwitala ? (7) Akugona chigono chimo ; wanga-
pajenda, igono iwili. (8) Akusaka watengatenga wakuja
ku Zomba. Ana walingwa ali? Makumi gawili kwisa
jumo. (9) Chambone, atame, mwalembe mena gao,
twape misigo chenene. (10) Mjende mkawalanje
misigo'jila winji wakwe. Mbalasile josepe, jipali
makumi gawili kwisa msano na jiwili. (11) Ajende
Mahmadi akasose wandu wane ; awawa alindilile kuno-
kuno. (12) Pataiche wane'po tajigalile pamo ligongo
ngusaka kuti jijaule josepe'ji pampepe. (13) Sambano
wandu'wa ajime ajile ndandanda, tuwalanje ichenene.

138 A TAO GRAMMAR

Ate winji mnope. (14) WanduVa waichile kupochela
malipilo. Mwasalile ajauleje, akauje malawi kundawipe,
sinalipile. (15) Munanjile pasikutama ngose, ngasilole.
Kwende, aga makau'ga ga ngose. Sipite mchiutuka.
Elo, likumbo lyakwe ali, sipite syasijinji ; nambo sine'si
mbunda, site kuwanganichila. (16) Wani wakungola-
nga'ne? Ngapali akumkolanga, uwe tukuwecheta yetu.
(17) Ku Blantyre mbwanda sambano sikomele ; nasiweni
lijusi wajigele wandu wane.

6. Translate into ChiYao.

(1) How much is this truss of calico? I don't know,
I haven't asked its price yet ; were you wanting to buy
it ? Yes, I wanted to buy it if I knew how much it was.
(2) All right, come back in three days, I will first ask the
owner. Right-oh ! I will call again on that day. Good-
bye, Sir, till we meet again. (3) All the workers have
run away. Have you been knocking them about ? No,
they just bolted, without having been hit. (4) What do
you want? I want work. What work have you done
before? In a forge. There is no such work here, only
bricklaying. I have never learnt that, I will go on look-
ing for other work. (5) Send some workmen to go and
cut four forked trees. Then some of the others may go
and get limestone ; let them go to Chilwa, there is good
lime there. (6) Did you cover that pot ? No, I didn't,
because I couldn't find the lid. (7) Let's go home now,
the sun is down. (8) Male gad-flies do not bite, but the
females do. There are many varieties, some black, some
speckled, and others reddish. There are, however, some
big ones the name of which we don't know ; we just call
them all gad-flies, though the old people know their
names. (9) There is usually some rain from the South
towards the end of the harvest season, but this year
there was only a little. (10) It was blowing hard y ester-

EEVISION EXEECISES 139

day, and the house was full of dust. (11) Look how
wide the lake is, the other side is not visible. Small
boats do not go there but only steamers; they go far
away where we never go. (12) Has all the meat come?
Yes. Take and divide it amongst all the people. (13)
Here, what's-your-name, tell your sister to come and
cook for me, I am hungry. She says she is coming, she
is grinding flour.

7. Translate into English: —

(1) Une ngukondwa pakupikana kuti walakwe ali
ichenene, none ndili chiwela ni umi wangu. (2) Ana
wandu wajinji'wa wakuuma kwapi ? Akuuma ku Mlanje,
aiche kujigala mbeju syetonji. (3) Umwe, mlindilile
akuno mpaka nimsiman'e ; mkisimjendajenda kuja kwine.
Ana timkauje katema chi ? Tingauje kuli kuswele.
Jendani, timusimane. (4) Liwangali lya kalakala, ana
mwaulele chaka chi? Jipite miesijiwili. (5) Tindime
matuto, mbande mbeju syangu. Namyaka kwende
tukalamuche, tulime migunda jamikulungwa ; ligongo
tutenda kulaga najo sala mowa gosepe. (6) Wani waku-
saka kwinjila lina lya mchimwene ? Nambo tutumjinji-
sye mwipwagwao juamkulungwa. Kwende ku Lukumbi
tukawechete yeleyo. (7) Atujasime luulo, tukatechele
mesi. Ajigale alu, nambo auje nalo chitema. (8) Une
ndile nyuchi lelo, nasisimene mu mtela'mo. Ana sya-
ngaluma ? Kuluma kusyene, hgongo ndesileje kupimilila.
(9) 'Mwe mwasalile wakugomba lulusilo, aleche, hgongo
akutenda lisegwe. (10) Achimwene Che Bakah ! Une !
Ana tajaule kwimajima lelo ? Elo, njiteje nyaule kwalola
alamu. Alole nambo, najaulaga kwiwanda kwa mwenye.
akalunguchisye kuti akwegwao tiwasimane malawi ku-
ndawi. (11) Chambone, tiniwasalile. Nowe sambano
tutakwawonaga pakuja mauja. Elo, ambuje, kwende
tusindichisye.

140 A TAO GBAMMAB

8. Translate into English: —

Pakutanda mgunda wa sambano, manyasi ni luitela
wakukata nekocha ; nipo maganga gosepe wakulokotanya
nekuunjikanya ikwekwe. Pakumala kuchochola iyoyo,
wakusalindila ula jandanda, akapande mbeju, nipo chuku
chose wakulima luwila nekuunga matuto. Pati imanga
ikomele, wakugowola, nekujigalila mungalala kuja ku
ngokwe.

Pati wakusaka kwilya imanga^o, wakwiwasa ku ngo-
kwe, nekuputukula, isonde nipo wakwamba kwasa. Soni
wakutola^ imanga 'yo kuja nayo kwituli, nekupomola ni
mesi panandi; ali wamasile kupomola'mo, wakutegula
nekutaga m'lukalala. Sambano wakusapula panandi pa-
nandi nekuwika m'lupeta, kuti apete nekutyosya masete
gakwe ; pati wamasile kupeta msokolo, wakutaga mluka-
lala mwangali kandu, kuti utame msokolope wangali
masete. Soni nawa imanga ili chiwela masete panandi,
wakuwilisya soni kutwa kawili, kuti gatyoche masete
gosepe. Mkumala kupomola 'mo, nipo wakutola mesi,
kuteleka pa moto kuti gakole mtukuta panandi, nekute-
gula kutaga imanga yosepe'yo kuloweka kuti ijolowe.
Mkolowa'mo nipo wakuchuula kuwika mlupeta ; ili igo-
nile lyuwa limo namose mowa gawili, nekuja nayo ku
lusulo kukusuka. Pakuuja nawo, wakuwika pachanya
pa msakasa kuti mlowe'wo ulagale, nekuuja nawo ku
matuli kukutimbula ni mwisi. Ali wamasile kutimbula
nipo wakutegulila m'lupeta nekusenyenda ; pakusenye-
nda, lusenga wakuwika m^chiselo, ni utandi wakutaga
m'chiselo chine. Pakumala kusenyenda soni wakutola
lusenga'lo kuwika mwituh kutwa soni; nipo wakutola
utandi' wo, kwanika kuti ujumule.

Nakusaka kuteleka ugali, wakutanda kusuka chulugo,
kutyosa makokoto, nekutaga mesi kuwika pa mawiga.
'Kanigatokote wakutola utandi panandi, kutaga mu mgao,

EEVISION EXEECISES 141

kuunya, nekologanya, kuti usungunukuche, nekutaga
m'chulugo'mo. Pati chipile, wakupungula mesi, kuwika
mu mbale, nekutola utandi kunyunya, nekuugaga pa-
nandi panandi mpaka kulimba ; nekongaga mesi panandi
kuti uujiche ichenene. Mkumala kuuga'mo, wakutegula
kuwika pasi chulugo'cho, nekupakulila ugaliVo, neku-
wika mu mbale, alye.

KEY TO EXERCISES.

Exercise 1 (page 9). — Ndesile, kundeka, ngusosa, nyaule,
tinjilola, akumbona, mbweni, ndesile, nguku, ngwi, kumbona,
kambulaga.

Exercise 2 (page 9).— Aleche, naiche, ajauleje, mtaje, talaje,
ndeleche, nduchile, mbaleje.

Exercise 3 (page 10).— Wiche or uwiche, yome, yuku, wonandi,
yekulangwa, sulo, sosile, lyesito, jangalungwa, kwisa, kwasima,
petala, kwitinji, lyejela.

Exercise 4 (page 10).— Nkwete, kujina, yaipiliyu, lya lisimba,
nkonji, lya likoka, nwete, npatile, nsichi, tinchiika, nkawone,
tinimwone, tinwone, kujinjila, nkulo^a, kujimba, njendege,
kujimuka, ntenda, ku likonde, mu lipenu, kujanga, syasinandi.

Exercise 5 (page 25).— The words of the people ; the stranger's
child ; the chief's village ; the sister's knives ; the youth's
bananas ; the neighbour's eggs ; a lion's skin ; reeds for mats ;
a fathom of rope ; the father's brother-in-law ; the European's
tobacco ; needles from the Banyan's ; a bunch of bananas from
the gardens ; mother's arm.

Exercise 6 (page 25). — Mkono wa mwanache, mikono ja
wanache ; mkalo wa sona, mikalo ja sona ; mchiga wa mtela,
michiga ja mitela ; mwanache jwa Mmwenye, wanache wa
Amwenye ; mchimwene jua musi, aimwene wa misi ; liwata
lya mlendo, mawata ga achalendo ; mgoji wa mtela, migoji ja
mitela ; lilowe lya Msungu, malowe ga Wasungu ; mlasi wa
kwitiwi, milasi ja ku matiwi ; mseu wa ku musi kwa mchi-
mwene, miseu ja ku misi kwa aimwene ; liganga lya litala,
maganga ga matala; mkalo wa kwa mmwenye, mikalo ja kwa
amwenye ; lisegwe lya mwanache, masegwe ga wanache ; mesi
ga mlendo, mesi ga achalendo ; mate ga lilowe, mate ga malowe ;
liwago lya atati, mawago ga achatati.

(142)

KET TO EXERCISES 143

Exercise 7 (page 27).— Many people ; green reeds ; dry trees ;
a living root ; the whole village ; all the villages ; large knives ;
good tobacco ; useless youths ; a woman ; a man ; white ducks ;
many hoes ; more bamboo ; good palm leaves ; a long road ;
any path ; many reeds ; all the eggs ; short rope ; much
water ; heavy stones ; a bad man ; black soil ; a native ; a
heavy tree ; an old person.

Exercise 8 (page 28).— (Wandu) wapiliyu; maganga ga-
maswela ; mkwamba wa mgoji wambone ; mitela jamileu ;
lipende lyejumu ; juamkongwe juamkoto ; musi wokulungwa ;
mesi gane ; wandu wachekulu wajinji ; mkalo wamtega ; milasi
jamileu ; mlasa wowisi wa migoji ; migwalangwa jine ja mwi-
penu ; musi wonandi ; michiga jamijipi ; wajinga wamtega
wosepe ; aimwene wambone ; alumbu wajinji ; meno ga-
makulungwa; wanache wana wose ; achisingano ali wose ;
Msungu juamleu ; lyuwa lyosepe ; masengo gamajinji ; liwata
lyamkambako ; juamlume ; masimba gamkolo gosepe ; liwata
lyamkolo lyepiliyu ; sona juamjumu ; Wasungu wachekulu
wosepe ; litala lili lyose.

Exercise 9 (page 34). — Black monkeys ; the whole roof ; a
stone house ; much maize ; the youth's hat ; a good path ; a
small box ; heavy hoes ; lying words (lies) ; a bad name ; a dry
skin ; cold water ; hot water ; short ropes ; much wisdom ;
small ants ; green firewood ; white hair ; a heavy net ; a long
bridge ; useless sleeping mats ; much fierceness ; all the por-
ridge ; more mad ; another small stream ; many small wounds ;
a little white patch ; heavy little boxes.

Exercise 10 (page 36). — Chipanje chachijinji ; ichili yeleu ;
chipewa chachikulungwa ; yaka yejinji ; matala gamanandi ;
lichika lya mwipenu ; malowe gambone ; liwata lyamkambako
lyeswela ; liu lyejinji ; matete gamawisi ; lisimba lyamka-
mbako ; mesi gambone ; mate gamajinji ; ngalala syenandi ;
lukonji lua lusambo ; saso syasijumu ; umbo gyasileu sya
Msungu ; ulalo wa machili ; ugali wosisisi ; ukana wambone ;
matope gosepe ; upile wine ; kanyumba ; tuupa ; tukalala.

Exercise 11 (page 43). — I am looking for ; I am going ; 1 am
coming ; he does ; they enter ; you speak ; I tell him (or you) ;
he is teaching mo; we wear them ; they suppose ; let him look ;

144 A YAO GRAMMAR

let me look ; let me call ; let him call me ; let him stand ; you
must wash ; let him pass ; I will lie ; he will wear ; I will' go
away ; I will call him ; I will bathe ; we will count ; I will
come ; they will enter ; I shall want ; I have gone ; I have
spoken ; I have looked ; I am tired ; he has gone away ; we
have worn ; they have got up ; they sat ; I have taught him ; he
has told you {or him) ; they have washed them ; I am tired ; I
have built it ; 1 called you ; we took ofiE (clothes) ; he saw ; we
called him {or you) ; I wanted them ; we did it ; go and look ;
go and wash ; go and call him ; let them go on searching ; you
Daay go ; go ; take ; look ; come ; good-bye (lit remain) ; go on
wearing ; good-bye.

Exercise 12 (page 43).— Nguwona ; ngwisa ; wakwima ;
tukugona ; ngwaula ; ngwasaka ; ngusaka kumbona ; ngwaula
kumbilanga ; akulijiganya ChiYao ; alole ; asigale ; mjaule ;
wagone ; nyimuche ; mukalembe ; akasichape.; mkalole ;
ngambilanje ; tasigale ; tinijijigale ; tutuiche ; tajaule ; timsale ;
ndolite ; aiche ; mbesile ; walijigenye ; lipite ; syajinjile ; twa-
temi ; nawechete ; najawile ; twajosile ; ambilasile ; twasiweni ;
yatyosile ; ajityosye mbale ; agalembe ; mkambilanje ; akajoje ,
mwiche mtame ; najime.

Exercise 13 (page 48).— (1) Where are you going? I am
going to the stream to bathe. (2) That is a very good house.
Yes, it is good, but that one (over there) is a good one also. (3)
1 want to wash my clothes. All right, but you must wash the
others belonging to the European also. (4) This man wants
work. If he has a good " character," I will write him on. (5)
Come here and let me look at your " character." No, sir, his
" character " is bad ; he is a good-for-nothing, this one. That
will do, he may go. (6) 1 want to see your dog. Which one ?
The black one, I have heard it is a very good one. And 1 (also)
have a dog, a small one though. (7) Here, you ! what do you
want ? 1 came to see you. All right, you have seen me ; what
now ? Am 1 to go ? Yes, go. (8) I wanted some people to
carry these mats, but they have all gone to their gardens. Go
to the chiefs village, and tell him that I want some boys to
carry them. Yes, I will go.

Exercise 14 (page 49).— (1) Naweni ng'ombe syenu mu
mgunda mwangu. Sityosile sambano. (2) Mundu'ju mjinga.

KEY TO EXEECISES 145

Akwisa akuno mowa gosepe. Akusaka chichi ? Kwalini. (3)
Mjigale lukalala alu. Amsalile juine alujigale, none mbesile.
Naga msakaliche, mtame akuno, nambo tinimsalile Msungu.
(4) M'mwenye'ju juangalumbana. Akusaka ngachape nguo
syakwe, nambo nguwona kuti akambilanje mchanda juakwe,
akasichape. (6) Ana mkutenda chichi kweleko? Ngulemba
chikalata kwa alumbu wangu. (6) Munyimusye une pepenga.
Ngusaka kwimuka ngajoje ku lusulo. Chambone, tinimjimusye.

(7) Mbikene kuti mkutyoka. Elo, ngwaula ngamlole alamu.

(8) Wandu awa wajigele mikeka, mjilole. Mwasalile apite.
Mikeka'ji jamtega, jaminandi. Ajityosye.

Exercise 15 (page 52). — I do not hear; he is not coming; we
are not bathing; he does not pass; you must not enter; do not
call ; I must not remain ; we must not stand ; don't speak ;
don't write ; don't think ; don't bathe ; I will not go ; he will
not get up ; you will not say ; we will not tell ; he was not tired ;
I did not get up ; we did not go away ; you did not take away ;
disobedient people; children who are learning; youths who
carry ; game which does not lie down.

ExEECiSE 16 (page 63). — Ngongujiganya; ngakuwecheta ;
ngetukuwona; ngimkupikana ; ngakuika; ngasawona; akasa-
wecheta; mkawecheta; tukajaula; mkasajaula; nginyoga;
ngasaka; ngutujaula; ngimsalila; ngawawecheta ; hgani-
nganisya; nganapikana; nganitujaula; nganawaika; mchanda
juakuwalangaga ; nyama syakupitaga; juamkongwe juangajima;
wandu wangaika.

Exercise 17 (page 54). — (1) Bring the meal; the European
is calling for something to eat. All right, I will bring it. (2)
Why are you sitting there ? Are you not afraid ? What should
I be afraid of ? (3) Don't you know that the European has a
big dog? No, I did not know, I will get off now. Oh ! I thought
I should frighten you. (4) Where have the people gone ? They
are sitting outside. I want them to push the rickshaw, and
take me to Zomba. (5) All right, I will call them. One man
has not come, but his younger brother told me that he has gone
to see his mother. (6) This is a dreadful place, there are many
mosquitoes. I have not slept at all. I will go and sleep else-
where. (7) Where will you go ? 1 don't know. Because across

10

146 A TAO GRAMMAR

(the stream) I saw a large number of flies. Yes, the reason of
that is the chiefs cattle. (8) What do you eat here ? Plenty
(of different things), maize and millet porridge, rice, fruit, — ^we
live very well. (9) But there is no fish here. No, there is none,
but (there is plenty) at the Lake. So I shall go some day to my
elder brother's and look for some. (10) Who told you you might
drink that water ? Why do you frighten me ? I was thirsty, I
did not drink your water on purpose, I supposed that it was for
anybody.

Exercise 18 (page 55). — (1) Mkutila chichi ? najogwepe
Msungu. Mbikene kuti jua ukali mnope. (2) Amsalile'mwe
wani kuti jua ukali ? Wandu wa pa musi pasyeto'pala wasalile
une. Unami, juambone ajo. (3) Mtela'u wosito mnope, nge-
tupakombola kuujigala. Wane ante, wane atute, tapakombole
iyoyo. (4) Autuche akajigale lijela. Timsimane line pachanya
pebweta lyekulungwa m'nyumba mwangu. Nyumba'jila jili
pesi ni jangu.^ (5) Ngogopa kwinjila m'nyumba mwenu.
Chambone, mjime pasa, mwasalile wakutama mkati kuti mku-
saka lijela lyangu. (6) Mbiche chitela'cho pasi, mwiche akuno.
Ana chichi sambano ? Tamani pasi, ngusaka kumsalila chindu.
(7) Ana mkupikana ChiYao? Ngwamba, ngongupakombola
kuchiwecheta, nambo ngulijiganya. (8) Aikumjiganya'mwe
wani? Capitao ajo juakwisa akuno mowa gosepe. Nganini-
mbona.

Exercise 19 (page 60).— (1) He has not passed yet ; I have
not gone yet; we have not seen them yet; you have not yet
done ; I have not called them yet. (2) Before he spoke ; before
we had written ; before I told ; before I told him ; before you
taught ; before they bathed. (3) Myself ; this (house) ; these
(dogs) ; those (hoes) ; that (hoe) ; this same (house) ; these same
(stones) ; that same (hoe) ; that same (place) ; that same (place) ;
those same (hoes) ; this (hoe) here ; these (hoes) here ; these
(dogs) here. (4) That same one; this same place here; that
same place there ; this one here.

Exercise 20 (page 61). — (1) Nginindye ; nganasakaliche ;
nganawajimuche; nganituwale. (2) Wakanawatile ; mkana-
mbilanje; tukanatujaule ; sikanasipite ; jikanajijinjile. (3)

* See page 71.

KEY TO BXEECISES 147

Twachimsyene ; jueleju ; jwelejo ; syelesi ; gelego ; lyelelyo.
(4) Matete agaga ; atati asyene ; ng'ombe jijojo ; chuku chisyene ;
mundu ajuno ; majela agano. (5) Silasila ; mwemuno ; kwekula ;
syesino.

Exercise 21 (page 62). — (1) Is his father dead? Yes, he
died before the Europeans came. Who succeeded? The
younger brother of Juma. (2) I want to send a man to take
this letter to the European. What letter ? That one which is
on the table. (3) All right, but the people have gone to draw
water. Have they all gone ? One has gone to (get) firewood,
and another has not come yet. Send one belonging to your
home. (4) Where is your knife ? It is lost. You have no
luck ; where did you lose it ? On the other side (of the hill)
there at my elder brother's. (5) I think that Yao is a difficult
language, because the people do not speak clearly, and I cannot
understand what they say. (6) But you are learning quickly,
you will soon be able to understand well. (7) Where are the
loads (carriers) ? They are in front. I saw them sitting down.
Did you see them all ? I did not count them, but I don't think
that any are behind, because they dread the heat ; they will
walk quickly. (8) I want them to put up the tent before we
arrive, because I am tired, and I want to have a bath. (9)
What do you mean by acting like this ? Why do you not finish
your work nicely like this man ? Do you think I shall give
you the same money ?

Exercise 22 (page 62). — (1) Ana m'masile masengo'go?
Masengo'chi ? Namsalile mkateche mesi ku lusulo, mgataje pa
mbeju mumgunda. (2) Nginimbikana. Tiniwawilanje wa
masengo sambano. Chambone, nambo mkamalisye chitema,
ligongo ngusaka mkatende chindu chine panyuma pakwe. (3)
Mpeleche chikalata'chi kwa M'mwenye. Muutuche, ligongo
ngusaka nguo'jo pangakawa. Nambo kwa M'mwenye kwaku-
talika. Elo, ngamanyilila. Ajendeje. (4) Ana mundu'jo
apite ? Ngwamba, nganajaule. Namsalile akatyoche, une
nginindye. Elo, nambo akuti apesile. Amsalile ajaule ku-
mangwao. (5) Ana wandu nganamale kutawa nyumba jao?
Elo, wajawile kukujigala matete. (6) Asyene musi ali kwapi ?
Atisile kwikonde. Ligongo chichi akutenda yati'ii ? Kwalini,
ngupela kuti akogopa. (7) Masengo'go nganagamale, mkalole

148 A TAO GEAMMAR

mwasyene. (8) Mkasajasa matete 'gala. Matete gapi ? Ge-
gano. Ngugasaka nambo. (9) Chichi mkusaka kutenda nago ?
Tinimpe alumbu. Chambone jigalagani.

Exercise 23 (page 68).— (1) 3 lines ; 9 bags ; 7 sheep ; 11
hoes ; 21 people ; 46 shillings. (2) 100 days ; 128 baskets ; 303
trees ; 1087 bricks. (3) I saw him only 3 times ; he often comes ;
I will return on 5th day ; write on all the people except the third
one ; don't kill that fowl, it is the last one. (4) I came to your
house last night, but you had gone somewhere else. What did
you want ? I wanted to borrow a hoe. (5) Is your family ac-
customed to go into a house at night just to borrow a hoe ? (6)
No, but I remembered it on the way, and I wanted to go to
work with it early in the morning. I don't think you are
speaking the truth. (7) This rope is too short. Do you want
some more ? Yes, go and get 3 fathoms. How many ? I did
not quite hear. Only three. (8) Go and kill the goat, the black
one ; a visitor is coming. When will he come ? This evening.
(9) I will go to my young brother's to-morrow, and borrow some
money. Will he agree ? I think so, because he has got a great
deal, from his work.

Exercise 24 (page 68). — (1) Majumba gawili ; ngondolo
msano na jimo ; wandu msano na watatu ; mbwa likumi kwisa
msano ; mowa makumi gawili kwisa limo ; mbiya makumi
gatatu kwisa msano na siwili. (2) Matete makumi msano na
limo kwisa limo ; milasi makumi msano na gatatu kwisa
msano na umo ; mikwamba makumi msano na mcheche kwisa
mcheche ; wandu lichila kwisa msano na jumo ; nguku lichila
kwisa makumi gawili kwisa msano ; mandanda machila
gatatu kwisa makumi msano na gawili kwisa gawili ; malowe
machila likumi kwisa limo. (3) Akwisa akuno kamokamope ;
najawile kweleko kacheche mwesi'uno ; mwesi auno wa chi ?
Wajitatu. Timjise lyuwa'chi ? Lya kakumi. Lupiya Iwaku-
tanda. (4) Kwende, tujaule kumsika lelo. Ngwamba, ngongu-
pakombola kuja musi, nambo tinyaule ligulo'lino. (5) Mwa-
weni wandu walingwa lijusi'lila ? Kwapi ? Petumbi'pala.
Kwalini, mwanda. Walingwa nambo ; makumi gatatu, machila
gatatu, uli ? Wapundile machila msano. Elo, winji mnope.
(6) Ana mkukumbuchila kuti mwajasime mbiya siwili kwa-
ngune ? Ngwamba, lyuwa'chi ? Lijusi, ku msika'ko. Mwasa-

KEY TO EXEECISES 149

sile kuti ngamkumbusye *mwe. Oh, E-e ! mjise kumangwetu,
nimpe. (7) Ana mkumanyilila kutawa nyumba mpela ajiji ?
Elo, tusyowelele kusitawa iyoyo kumangwetu. Syambone
mnope. Kupunda.

Exercise 25 (page 75). — I shall be ; they have been ; he is
searching ; they were sending ; there are cattle (in there) ; no-
body has sent anything ; strangers who saw ; sheep which have
gone in ; we who have spoken ; the youths who passed ; a hoe
which I have ; we who are strangers ; the gun which you carried ;
people whom we called ; bricks which you took away ; when he
spoke ; when (or where) you went away ; where you have written ;
where they slept ; that was why I said ; where the earth has
fallen ; clothes which they do not wear ; things which you do
not understand ; things which you have not brought ; any man
who has not learnt ; maize which we do not want; children who
did not obey ; clothes which you have not washed.

Exercise 26 (page 76). — Tuwele ; awe; ndilimkulijiganya;
twapitaga; ngati welewo; ana ngwena nganisipagwa {or nga-
nisimugwa) m'lusulo ? Ngapagwa juasiweni ; liwago liligwile
Uila ; malowe gambechete'go ; mchanda juakuwalangaga ; nyama
syakupitaga'sila ; wakongwe wangakana; achachanda umwa-
wilasile ; achachanda uwambilasile'mwe'wala ; wandu wangaika
pingwawilanga ; nguo jijaiche'jo ; wanache uwajosile ; umwejo
umwakwete majela ; ipula inaisachile ; pimkusala ; paakulola ;
potwagonile'pala ; nde ponamsachile'mwe ; majela gatukakuga-
saka {or gangasaka uwe) ; malowe gatukanagapikana {or gatuka-
napikana uwe) ; aimwene wakanaika.

Exercise 27 (page 77).— (1) What are you thinking about?
Nothing. Nonsense, nobody sits like that without thinking about
something. (2) I was thinking how poor I am. Keally I What
do you lack ? Lots of things, I have no clothes, nothing. (3)
Nobody lacks everything unless on purpose. Explain. A man
lacks a thing because he has no money, is that so? (4) Yes.
Well, he lacks money because he does not work. Quite so.
Very well then, go and work like we do. (5) Go and call Che
Juma (and tell him to) bring my gun; I am going shooting.
Which gun will you take? The, rifle and the shot-gun also.
(6) Game ! Where ? There, it is lying down ; shoot quickly

150 A YAO GEAMMAB

before it hears us. You have missed, have another shot, it has
not run away yet. Good, you hit it this time. (7) Where is
your wife ? She has gone down to see her mother. When were
you married ? Some days ago ; I married Che Ali*s sister. (8)
You are lucky, he is rich. Very, but that was not why I married
his sister. (9) I did not say you did. No, but I thought that
was what you meant.

Exercise 28 (page 78). — (1) Mkasajinjila m'nyumba mwangu
iyoyo. Soyiye, bwana, naliwalile. (2) Ana lisegwe kusa'ko mate
gakwe chichi? Wapali wandu wajinji waiche asume imanga.

(3) Mwasalile auje malawi, ngati ligulo sambano? Akuti waje-
sile mwipululupe, nipo sala j'wakwete. (4) Ajasime yakulya ;
ngongupakombola kwapa chindu ligulo'lino. Chambone, nambo
talaje. (5) Mwasomile nyama'jo kwapi? Pa lukongolo luaku-
mchiji. Ana mwajiuleje panyuma pakwe? (6) Elo, nagombile
katatu; chipolopolo chakutanda chajisomile, soni nakulwisye,
nipo cha katatu chajiuleje. (7) Mgopole lukonji'lu. Ngapagwa
juakupakombola kulugopola, mundu atawile chilumbo chakuno-
nopa. (8) Ana wani wamsalile mjase mbale'jo? Ngapagwa,
nambo jakasiche, nipo mbesile kuti jangali masengo sambano.
(9) Tujende litala'chi ? Kumkuli mwipululupe ; tujaule kwi-
wanda tukalole akulu wenu.

Exercise 29 (page 82). — (1) If he bathe ; if I remember ; if
you want ; if they run away. (2) If I had known ; if he had
lost ; if it were lost ; if they finish. (3) If we were disobedient
{or, if we disobey) ; if it had not finished ; had I not understood.

(4) We should see ; you would have been looking ; I should sup-
pose ; he would have been bringing ; you would have seen. (5)
I should have given you ; we should have been near ; he would
have lost ; they would not have finished ; I would not have killed
it ; you would not have missed. (6) I should not have forgotten ;
a poor man ; an iron box.

Exercise 30 (page 83). — (1) Nimjise ; natuwone ; nakakulusye
nimkalombele. (2) Mungamanyilile ; ningaliwone ; jingaiche
angajisume. (3) Ningawejuangasoya; mungawe wangaliwalila
tungawe wakusichila ; ula jingawe jangaika. (4) Ningatumaga
mungalijimkumalisya; ^angalijimkupanganya. (5) Angaliwa-
lile ; ningakumbuchile ; mungauwile ; gangajasiche. (6) Ngu-

KEY TO EXEECISES 151

kunutuleka ; ngingininimpa ; ngikinichinonopa. (7) (Mundu)
juakusichila ; nguo jajimale ; mpando wa mtela ; mbiya sya-
sijasiche.

Exercise 31 (page 84). — (1) If I had known that you were
coming I would have waited for you. It does not matter; it's
my own fault, because I did not send anybody to let you know.
(2) Tell them to wait outside, I will come soon. Have they
brought any fowls ? Yes, they have brought eleven. (3) How
did they carry them ? Tied to a stick. Have I not always said
that they must not carry them like that ? Why don't they mak^
a proper basket to put them in ? (4) I don't know, it's their look-
out, not mine. Are you not the capitao ? It is your job to stop
people doing this sort of thing. (5) Yes, sir, I forgot. I have
no other excuse. All right, I shall forget the amount of your
wages when I pay you your money and give you only five shil-
lings. But — . That will do ; you may go. (6) Have the cattle
gone into the kraal yet ? No, not yet ; there are too many now
owing to those which came to-day. (7) There is not room for
them all ? No, there really is n't. All right, for to-day put all
the oxen in the kraal, the old ones as well as those which came
to-day. (8) You understand ? Yes. Then let the sheep go into
the old house, and you must watch there all night, with a gun.
If a leopard comes you must kill it. (9) To-morrow we will
send people to fetch some trees, and we will build another kraal
for the sheep. All right, sir, I understand.

Exercise 32 (page 85). — (1) Mungaiche katasi, munga-
mbweni mpwenu. Ningaiche akuno katasipe, ningawe juanga-
liwalila mkeka Wangu ; naujilile ngautole. (2) Ana wosepe ali
chiwela kumangwetu? Elo chiwelape. Kwalini kwekuno?
Ausile Che Bula. (3) E-e ! nguwona kuti akusile sambano ?
Elo, akusechelela pakuti ausile. Wapangenye masengo ku
Halale yaka iwili, nipo akusichila. (4) Tungamanyilile kuti
mwasachile wa masengo, tungaiche katasi. Ligongo chichi
nganimutulindilile uwe ? (5) Nakusiulaga nguku syenu chisui,
mukanamale kutawa chitundu chao, ngakanimsechelela. (6)
Elo, ngulindilila matete gakwe, chemwali ajile kukugatola.
Nakwitichisya umwe, tinisileche m'nyumba mwenu'muno chilo.
(7) Kwangali liuto kwakusiwika, Kwangali chindu, kwa lelo

152 A TAO GRAMMAR

tingambe kusileka m'chiteletele mwao. (8) Wakwisa kulya akuno
Wasungu walingwa? Mcheche. Nguwona kuti yakulya ina-
ndwipe. (9) Mkaulaje nguku jine, soni mukatole chitini cha
isogosi. (10) Mkutwichila katundu'jo ligongo chichi ? Mbesile
kuti tukwaula sambano. Mtule soni, mwalindilile wane.

Exercise 33 (page 89). — He will come ; I will go and wait ;
I must go ; he must pass (sometime) ; we must go and pay ;
since I (he, you, etc.) came ; since I began work ; he is still
asleep ; I was still waiting for you ; they were still sitting ; we
are merely searching ; I only told him ; just give him ; although
you are many, I am not afraid of you ; although I don't really
want it, I will buy it ; will you be coming back ? " Not likely I "

Exercise 34 (page 89).— Tachilipa ; tutukateche mesi ; si-
mchiuja ; takatule akatundu wao ; chitulolele ; chitolele ; ali
chikulile ; tuli chisachile ; nagambile kumbilanga'mwe ; tu-
kwamba kulola ; wagambile koga ; nimchiujilila'muno, ngi-
msimana ; nakatulipe'muno, tachilipa ; ninjisosa'muno, ngani-
nichisimana.

Exercise 35 (page 91).— (1) Where has what's-his-name gone
to ? Who ? I have forgotten his name ? What's-his-name — ,
the chap who is always gadding about. (2) I don't know him.
Oh ! you know him quite well ; what's-his-name, the man who
wejit with you to Zomba. (3) Oh ! Che Juma ! Yes, that's the
fellow ; where is he ? I saw him a little time ago at the mar-
ket. What was he doing ? (4) Nothing, he was just talking to
the people. Do you think he is still there ? Perhaps, that lot
are always on the move, sometimes they just walk about, some-
times they stay there for some time. (6) That chap is a bit of a
puzzle, he always dresses as if he were well-off, but he never
does any work. (6) Shall I call him ? Yes, but you must hurry
up, because you haven't started cooking lunch yet, and I am
hungry now. (7) See that he" accompanies you when you come
back. Yes, I know, I will bring him soon. (8) We have been
here for some time now, we will get on with our journey to-
morrow. Right ! Let us get off early in the morning though,
because it is v6ry hot during the day. (9) The carriers will
suffer from the heat. Yes, but we are only going to Chiwalo's,
it is not far.

KEY TO EXBBCISES 153

Exercise 36 (page 91). — (1) Nyamba jangu jagwile chilo cha
lelo. Eti ? EIo, sambano sinjitawa jine ; kwangali chindu
nambo, jikawile. (2) Takatande jine lyuwa chi ? Naiche
akuno n'angane na mundu, ajinjile masengo gangu. (3) Gaku-
tawa nyumba'jo ? Elo, ambi uli ? None ngongupakombola,
nambo nguwona kuti Chenyono — , Bula, tajitichisye ligongo
jualakwe akusosa masengo. (4) Mwanja'wo ali kwa' ? Ajile
kwimajima, nambo tauje pangakawa. A jo ! akwisa sambano.
(6) Amlanjile. We mwanja'wo juakupechesya wakongwe 'wo.
Yambone, tingawechete najo. (6) Walakwe ! Ana mkusaka
masengo ? Masengo gachi ? Gakutawa nyumba. Elo ; nyumba
jacheni nambo ? Ugwi ! nyumba jangu. (7) Ana umweji
juakupakombola kulemba wandu apanganye masengo ga msoko ?
Ngwamba, nambo Msungu juangu tachimlemba'mwe masengo
gakwe, mulipe mbiya mehechepe. (8) Natende yeleyo, yam-
bone tingatawe nyumba jenu. Kwende tujaule kwa Msungu,
amlembe lelo, mukatande masengo kundawi kwakwe pa lyuwa
lya kulemba. Kwende. (9) Bwana, ngusaka mundu'ju akata-
we nyumba jangu ku musi. Elo, mbikene, ambi uli ? Amlembe
mpela masengo genu, ligongo une juangapakombola kwaula ku
musi ngatende yeleyo namsyene, pakuti boi juao. Chambone,
tinimlembe.

Exercise 37 (page 96).— (1) To kill for, or with ; to run to,
for, or with ; to draw (water) with, or for ; to wait for. (2) To
forbid ; to cause to fall ; to cause to run ; to drive away ; to
show. (3) To think hard ; to send frequently ; to ask repeat-
edly ; to make carefully. (4) To be for sale ; to be wounded ;
to be fired ; to set upright ; to be tie-able ; to be audible. (6)
He had only just got up. (6) Che Nampanda who was also
known as Che Msamati.

Exercise 38 (page 96).— (1) Kujigalila ; kusomela ; kwendela
kutawila. (2) Kutamika ; kujesya ; kusimosya ; kusakalisya
kupikanichisya. (3) Kukulusika ; kukomboleka ; kwasimika
kuchapika ; kugopoka ; kwiwika. (4) Nyumba janatawape
naliji juanaichilape.

Exercise 39 (page 97). — (1) There was once a man who went
out shooting ; he killed a buck, and made up (the meat into) a
bundle. His path lay along a watershed where there was no

154 A TAO GBAMMAB

water, and he was thirsty. He put down his load on the path
to go and look for some water and he found it in plenty. Before
he had taken a drink, he saw a lot of fish swimming about in
the water, and he said, "I will go and get some fish-poison
and catch these fish." So went off looking for fish -poison and
brought some and put it into the water. He noticed then that
the fish were floating on the surface, and he bethought
himself, "I will go and get my bundle (of meat), and put it
here, so that I can catch these fish at my leisure." So he went
to fetch it. (When he got) there, he found that someone had
stolen his bundle, and he went in pursuit along the path. He
did not find (the man) who had taken it. He came running
back to catch the fish, and he found that they had vomited the
poison, and were swimming deep down (out of his reach)i Then
he complained bitterly, saying, " Somebody has stolen my meat,
and I have caught no fish. If 1 had had a drink and gone on,
nobody would have stolen my meat. I must not act like this
another time." The man went home with empty hands.

Exercise 40 (page 98). — (1) MwanjaVo juakutama kweleko,
ambele nguo ja lulele, nipo une nginingola kandu kakumpa
mundu'ju. (2) Chonde, wakamulile lupiya, anyasime! Tinji-
wapa luangu. (3) Nowe nganatukola, tulasile mpela umweji.
Ambi tindende uli ? Pakuti mundu'ju akutyoka sambano. (4)
Mumsalile kuti akauje pakumala mwesi. Chambone, tini-
msalile, ajauleje. (5) Namyaka* jaiche ula panandi. Chaliji
chuku chambone mwacheso namuno mwachejusi ; ngetupako-
mbola kulolela chuku chambone yaka yose. (6) Elo, pane pa
chaka chuku ngachikawa iyoyo. Mkasateleka ukana wojinji,
basi. (7) Mkawile chichi ? Nginimpakombola komboka lusulo
ku chiko, nipo najawile kwa CheMwanyama, ngajasime wato.
(8) Nguo jenu jipapwiche. Elo ninjile nyasime jine nambo
kulepela. Mkujugajuga mwejo mowa gosepe, nguwona mpela
mwaiche akuno kukusosa chakulokota. (9) Ana mpela ngusaka
kwi wa ? Mkwalusya'ne ligongo chichi ? Kwalini, nambo ngo-
ngusyowekana ni wakujugajuga wangakamula masengo, mpela
wangali soni. (10) Lelo chitukuta mnope, chilp nalepele gona.
Elo, sambano chitandite chau.

Exercise 41 (page 104).— (1) Let us walk together ; they fought ;
we knew each other well. (2) Take (it) down j don't open (it) ;

KEY TO EXEECISES 155

we will unwind (it). (3) Why are you so conceited? I built
that house for myself ; we brought that for our own use. (4) Go
to (the place) where you saw it ; go and put it back where you
found it. (5) I pursued them in the direction in which they
had fled ; where you are standing is where I planted some seeds.

Exercise 42 (page 104). — (1) Nganatuwonegana ; atamane
pamo ; mkupikangana mowa gosepe. (2) Tutulumbukule ;
mkajanukule nguo'sila ; mtyosye chimbonga'cho. Chapi ? Che-
chila chakwegamila kwipupa; ugulani pa mlango. (3) Nalijo-
teleje moto; mkajima sai, mulijinamukule; nilitelechele
yakulya'yo namsyene. (4) Ana mkumanyilila kwajinjilile Che
Nyono? Wajile ku musi'kula kumwagasumile magombo'kula ;
wausile ku musi kwapagwile'ko ; msose mwisimbo 'mo m'mwag-
wile'mo.

Exercise 43 (page 105).— (1) "The *ngwime' does not run
about during the rains, but during the dry season. When the
rains commence, they go into their holes, and shut themselves
up in there till the dry season, fast asleep all the time. (Then)
they begin to go round picking up the food which is left in the
gardens after the harvest. They go (into the gardens) there,
pick up the food, and store it in their holes." " I have never
seen what an *ngwime' looks like." "If you want to know
(what) it (is like), come along and we will go to the garden
together; I set two traps there yesterday. Perhaps we shall
find (some) caught." "I should like to go with you." Then
they both went together, and when they got there they found
that both traps had gone off, and two " ngwime " had been
caught. Then he pointed and said, " Look, these are those
* ngwime' (about which we were speaking)." The other said,
" Now I know them."

Exercise 44 (page 106). — (1) Nguwona kuti ula jikwisa,
mbugale pa mlango'po, nekwanukula nguo'sila. (2) Ana tusi-
wiche papi, ligongo nganisijumule ? Msajiche pebweta'pala.

(3) Pomkuwechetana ni Msungu, mkasajegamila pa mlango iyoyo.

(4) Ana mbambe nyali sambano? Elo, soni mkolesye moto
' kuti nyoteje. (5) Wanache wakung'andana pamo kusa'ko. Ana

wakutenda chichi ? (6) Wakusyenga lusambo m'chitela. (7) Ana
imanga'i iumile kwapi ? Ku matimbe kwa CheMsusa'kula, waku-
sapanda kweleko yaka yosepe. (8) Wakusagowola katema'chi ?

156 A YAO GRAMMAR

Fakati pa chuku, soni pakutanda chau. (9) Makoswe galileje
nguo'ji chilo. Tutupanganye chigwenembe nekuchitega pa
lutumba'po. (10) Mbunichile pebweta, mliwiche pasi pa chi-
ndanda. Soni mkoleche nguo'si. Mkasikolechela kakonje 'ka,
nambo pa itela yao.

Exercise 45 (page 111).— (1) Don't spread those clothes there,
lest they get damp. (2) Everybody does like that though,
always. (3) Break off now, and start hoeing again when the
sun is thus. (4) Let us buy some flour at Mandala, this is
getting finished. (5) I was just going, I saw that there was
only a little left. (6) We will not untie that again, I have made
it up finally. (7) When I saw you coming I was just going
home. (8) This bucket has got a hole (in it), it is leaky. (9) I
have got a cold. I usually get one during the rains too. (10) I
saw Bula hoeing in his garden. (11) The women came sing=
ing, the children following them. (12) It is dawn now, come
along to work.

Exercise 46 (page 112). — (1) Muwimbe 'chenene chitaku-
sulula chipagala. (2) Mkalime mseu, utenda kuutala. (3) Mjise
tukajendajende. Njiteje ndye. (4) Nachite ndipile wandu pona-
mbweni'mwe po mwaikaga. (5) Twate kumala. (6) Ngusa-
jimuka kundawipe mowa gosepe, nambo lelo napesile. (7)
Mkulolechesyaga mosepe, najiweni ndembo jilimkwima pa
mtela, mchitemangula nyambi. (8) Mkoleche 'chenene mko-
ngaVo, utakugwa ; lelo mbungo jikupuga mnope. (9) Ana
mtawile lutenje'lo ? Nganatumale. (10) Mkwamba kutama
akuno ligongo chichi ? Tutakutawaga, tuchite tukang'we. (11)
Nyama jagwile pasi mchipilipitaga. (12) Sambano kuswele,
nipo jikunya ula, kwe* tugone akuno.

Exercise 47 (page 116). — (1) -wisile ; -wangenye ; -pisisye ;
-pokoswele ; -soyiye ; -wosile. (2) -tesile ; -kodwele ; -tutile ;
-tawile ; -pindiche. (3) -swekwile ; -nyenjile ; -pitikwisye ;
-ng'wele ; -mat wile. (4) -pap wile ; -pakeme ; -lile; -nunjile;
-nyosisye.

Exercise 48 (page 115). — (1) -liya ; -limbika ; -leupa ; -laga.

(2) -tojima ; -poka ; -pinduka ; -galausya ; -panganya ; -tokota.

(3) -lindilila ; -patula ; -komoka ; -pasya ; -nokola. (4) -kula ;
-Iwala ; -moga ; -ngwiya.

KEY TO REVISION EXERCISES. -

1. (Page 134). — (1) I want a lot of people to hoc this garden.

(2) Where are you going ? I am going to the stream to wash.

(3) What is this savoury smell in the house ? Meat which my
wife is cooking, (4) This blister is quite sore. (5) The sorghum
is getting eaten up by the doves and (other) birds. (6) It's
pleasantly cool to-day, not too hot. (7) I am going to Quila-
mane to buy gunpowder. (8) We want to go to Angoniland. I
don't. (9) Do you want some food ? No, I usually eat very
early. (10) Lions often come about the village at dead of night.
(11) Do you remember what we were discussing yesterday ?
No, I don't. (12) I think that you are pretending not to know,
because you remember quite well. (13) This box is heavy, I
sha'n't be able to carry it much further. (14) I want to go to
bed now, I am getting very sleepy. (15) My potatoes are going
bad and (are getting) riddled (with insects). Where do you
keep them ? I generally put them in the verandah-room, with
some earth. (16) The water has dried up in the well now, and
the people have begun to dig a new one. (17) What have you
put in that box ? It is empty. (18) It is calm to-day, there is
no wind ; it rained all night, till dawn. (19) These people want
to have a fight with me, though I have not said anything to
provoke them. (20) It is four days' journey from Zomba to
Chisyungule. (21) There are many different kinds, more than
ten.

2. (Page 135). — (1) Welewo ngakusaka kwinjila masengo,
wakutama mowa gosepe m'misi mwao. (2) Nambo -wandu
wakusyowelela kutenda masengo ngakutama kwakujinji pa
musi. (3) Aga manyasi'ga gali gambone kusyene, gegala gali
gakuwajilwa kwimbila nyumba. (4) Ana mkulwala chichi?
Ukumbweteka mgongo. (5) Ngingupikana yakuwecheta'yo,
ligongo une mowa gosepe nginguwecheta kawili kawili. (6) Ana
umwe chichi mkuganisya mowa gosepe? Nginingola kandu

(167)

158 A YAO GRAMMAR

kinguganisya ; ngwamba kutama namsyene. (7) Ngusimongwa
mundu'ju ; kulandana mpela jua ku Zomba. Ngwamba, juelejo
nganawa jua ku Zomba, nambo ku Mlanje. (8) Aji mbanga*ji
gakutama matunu. (9) Ana umwe chichi mkuseka?" (10)
Ngingusaka inangwa'yo, itenda kuwawa. (11) Une liku-
mbweteka liundika, ngukosomola mowa gosepe ; sambano nguja
kujuga mtela. Ngusalwala ehuku. (12) Sambano matete'gala
gamasile kupya gosepe. (13) Asonowangu wajile ku migunda
kukukawa mongu. (14) Wani wakachwile mtela'u? Ngapali
akaehwile, ukachwiche chilo pajipujileje mbungo. (15) Wandu
Va wanandwipe, ana wane wajile kwapi? (16) Alu lusulo'lu
Iwakutama mesi ehukupe ; chau mwangatama mesi, lukuwa
msangape.

3. (Page 135). — (1) I shall come to your place to beg for meat.
(2) Right oh ! see you later, I'll cut off the haunch for you. (3)
I won't be long, I'll be there directly. (4) Is that water boiling
yet? No, not yet, it is just beginning to, though. (6) You
want to ask for some medicine to drink, do you? All right,
ask away, perhaps he will give you some ; wait a bit, the doctor
hasn't come yet. (6) Pour the medicine into this bottle, and
take it with you ; but when you have finished the medicine,
you must bring the bottle back. (7) My house is finished, I
shall sleep in it to-night. (8) What have these people got in their
baskets? Onions for sale. (9) How much are they? Three
shillings a basket. I will take one. (10) If you come very early
in the morning, I shall be still in bed. (11) Have you wiped
those knives ? Yes, all of them. (12) It is dawn, come along
to work. (13) The hoers have stopped work now, it is twelve
o'clock. (14) Who was that fighting on the path this morning ?
I don't know who it was. (15) Bring the child and lay him on
the bed. (16) Close the tent, to stop the rain coming in. (17)
I say ! come on and cut some " tooth-brushes." All right, I'll
come, but I must go and put on another cloth, lest I tear this
one. (18) The child was still standing at the door, watching
the rain, and by and by he saw that it was clearing up. (19)
When I got back, I found my house built, and my wife cooking
the dinner, but the workmen were still smoothing off the
plaster. (20) So I said, " We can't sleep in here to-night, or we
shall get ill ; because the plaster isn't dry yet." (21) Generosity
is investment, meanness is ruin.

KEY TO EEVISION EXEECISES 159

4» (Page 136).— (1) Ningamanyilile kuti mulimkwisa, ninga-
teleche yakulya yine. Pangali kandu, ndyoeile ndili ndile
kumangwetu. (2) Chiichile uwe, jitandite kunya ula. (3)
Ngongusaka nguo'ji, nambo jejila ; ngwamba, jijojo jauatawape.
(4) Po wandolite une petal a, nagambile kutama pelepo, juanga-
tenda chindu. (5) Mwawilanje wanache aiehe akuno, nomwe
wakwe, tulongane pesi, tukasume utandi. (6) Achimwene
wakwaula ku Zomba, namose none juakwe tinongane nao ngalole
kusyeto. (7) Wandu wane waitandite jgowola imanga, nowe
wakwe tutuitande. (8) Nalisumile ehuma^cho ku sitolo jua
m'mwenye ajo jutukusumana najo uwe mowa gosepe. (9)
Ngwaula kwitinji, ni walakwe nombe nao alongane none. (10)
Umwe mumkodole mundu'jo aiche akuno. (11) Mjigale
masamba gamawisi, tutamile. Apano sikuluma salau. (12)
Ana wane ali kwa' ? Wasigele munyuma. (13) Umwe mtulo-
ngole litala lya ku Chikala, ngamlole mpwanga. (14) Ana
wakuuta galeta nganaiche akuno ? Nganaiche, ali mwitala ;
taiche ligulo. (15) Nambo ajaule wane akakulumisye achimjao.
Wandu nganakugwa, wajile kukutema ngwi. (16) Ana wosepe
wajawile kukutema ngwi ? Ngwamba, wane wakuehapa nguo ku
lusulo. (17) Mwawinje welewo, ^akaika akuno.

5. (Page 137). — (1) We have come a long way, let's have a
rest now. Yes, let's look for a really shady place. (2) I say !
you had better walk carefully here or the thorns will hurt you.
(3) I have hurt my toe, it is quite painful. What did you hurt
it with ? I stumbled on the path. (4) Is all well at home ? I
have not had any news from home, because I left so long ago,
and I don't know what has happened. (5) We will stop here
to-day, and stay two days. (6) How many days' journey is it
from here to Blantyre? (7) One; two easy days. (8) He
wants carriers to go to Zomba. How many are there? 21.
. (9) All right, let them sit down, while you take their names, so
that we can give them their loads properly. (10) Go and see
how many loads there are. I have counted them all, there are
27. (11) Mahmadi had better go and look for some more people,
while the others wait here. (12) When the others come, they
can go off together, because I want all the loads to go in one
trip. (13) Let all the men stand in line, so that we can count
them properly. There are more than enough, (14) These men
have come to get their wages. Tell them to go away and como

160 A YAO GRAMMAB •

back early to-morrow morning, and I will pay them. (15) Show
me where the hartebeeste are. Well, this is hartebeeste spoor.
They were on the run. Yes, it's their spoor all right, there was
a large number of them ; some of these were zebra, they were
mixed together. (16) Who is calling me? Nobody, we are
discussing our own affairs. (17) The beans are ripe in Blantyre
now ; some people I saw the other day had some.

6. (Page 138). — (1) Ana au mtumba wa nguo akusuma uli ?
Kwalini, nganimbusye usume wakwe. Ana walakwe wasachi-
leje kuti asume ? Elo, uneji sachileje kusuma, ningaumanye
mtengo. (2) Chambone, walakwe akauje mkucha, tindande
kwausya kaje asyene nguo'si, Ee-a-ah ! tingauje lyuwa lilyo-
lyo kukulola. Ajende achimwene, sachitusimana panopano.
(3) Wandu wa masengo'wala watisile wosepe. Ana mtesileje
kwaputa? Ngwamba, wagambile kutila achimsyene, wanga-
puta. (4) Ana mkusaka chichi ? Une ngusosa masengo.
Masengo gachi mwapanganyaga kala ? Ga chipala. Apano
pangali ga chipala, nambo gakuwaka. Gelego nganinilijiganye,
timbite mchisosa gane. (5) Mwatume wa masengo akateme
mi tela ja mapanda mcheche. Wane ajende akatole maganga
ga njelesa ; nambo ajaule ku Chilwa, kweleko niko jili njelesa
jambone. (6) Ana umwe mpika'ula mwaunichile ? Ngwamba,
nganimbunichila, ligongo liuniko nganiniliwona. (7) Kwe',
tujauleje kumangwetu, sambano kuswele. (8) Maguo gami-
kambako gangaluma, nambo gakuluma gamikolo. Nambo
gelego gapali ngosyongosyo, gane gamapiliyu, gane gamawala-ma-
wala, gane gamachejeu panandi. Nambo gapali gane gamaku-
lungwa, gelego uwe ngatukugamanyilila lina lyakwe ; uwe nipo
tukuti gosepe gali maguope, nambo achakulungwa wa kala,
welewo wakumanyilila mena gakwe. (9) Katema pakuwandi-
chila kumala masika, jikusaika ula ja mwela, nambo chaka'chino
jiiche panandipe. (10) Liso japugaga mbungo jajijinji mnope,
m*nyumba'muno mwaliji luundupe. (11) Mlole ukulu wakwe
wa nyasa, jangawoneka lisi line. Mwelemo mwangajenda
mawato nambo sitima ; sikuja kwakutalika kutukakupita uwe.
(12) Ana nyama'jila jiiche josepe? Elo. Kajigalile mwaga-
wanye wandu wosepe. (13) Anyone, mwasalile alumbuwenu
aiche akuno andelechele yakulya, sala jingwete. Akuti akwisa,
atenda kusyaga.

KEY TO EEVISION EXERCISES 16t

7. (Page 139).— (1) I am glad to hear you are well, I also am
still quite fit. (2) Where have all these people come from?
From Mlanje, they have come to get cotton-seed, (3) Wait
here till I get back, don't go off anywhere. When will you be
back ? After sunset. Go on then, I will meet you. (4) This
is an old sore, when did you get it ? Two months ago. (5) I'll
ridge up for sowing. Let's be sensible this year and hoe a
good big garden, because we are nearly always pinched for food.
(6) Who offers himself as a candidate for the .chieftainship ?
We are going to instal the eldest nephew. Let's go to Likumbe
and discuss the matter. (7) Lend me a pot to go and draw
water with. You may take this one, but bring it back soon. (8)
I had some honey to-day, I found it in that tree. Weren't you
stung? Badly, because I persisted. (9) Tell that fellow who
is whistling to stop, he is a nuisance. (10) I say, Bakali !
Hullo I Are you going for a walk to-day ? Yes, I thought of
going to see my brother-in-law. Well, look here, if you happen
to be going down to the Chiefs, you might let your mother-in-
law know that I shall meet her early to-morrow morning. (11)
All right, I'll tell her. I'll see you when I get back. Yes, I
will see you part of the way.

8. (Page 140). — When starting a new garden, they first cut
down and burn the grass and trees ; and pick up and pile to-
gether all the stones into heaps. When they have broken up
the bush in this manner, they wait for the first rains, plant
their seed, and keep the garden free from weeds, during the
whole of the rains, by hoeing the soil into heaps.

When the maize is ripe, they gather it in, and carry it in
baskets to the grain stores.

When they want to prepare the maize for food, they take it
from the store, strip the grain from the cob, and throw the cobs
away. Then they take the grain to the mortar, and husk it by
pounding with a little water ; having husked it, they take it
out of the mortar and put it in a basket. Now they take out
part at a time, putting it into a sifting basket, and separating
the husks from the grain ; the husked grain they put into an
empty basket. Then if there remain any husks with the grain,
they repound it, and remove them. ' When the husking process
is finished, they warm up some water, take it off the fire, and

11

4 •^

162 A YAO QBAMMAB

soak the grain in it so as to soften it. When it is soft, they
strain it, and put it into a sifting basket ; after a day or two,
they take it to the stream to wash it. On their return they
put it on the roof to dry partially, take it to the mortar and
pound it. After pounding, they pour the flour into a sifting
basket, and sift out the coarse grains, putting them into one*
basket, and the line-ground flour into another. When all the
flour is sifted, they repound ,the coarse grains. Then they take
the flour and spread it out to dry.

If they want to make porridge, they first wash out the pot to
remove the remains of the last meal, fill it with water, and put
it on the fire. Before it boils they take a little flour in a gourd-
cup, make it into a paste, rub it down thoroughly till it is quite
smooth, and add it to the pot. When it is hot, they pour out a
little water and sprinkle in flour, stirring gently until stiff,
adding a little water so that it can be stirred thoroughly. Hav-
ing finished stirring, they take the pot off the fire, put it on the
ground, ladle out the porridge, and put it into the plates ready
for eating.

ABBREVIATIONS

Used in the Vocabularies.

adj. .

. Adjective.

adj. pron. .

. Pronominal Adjective.

adv. .

. Adverb.

adv. n.

. Adverbial Noun.

conj. .

. Conjunction.

conn. pron.

. Connective Pronoun.

dem. pron.

. Demonstrative Pronoun.

n.

. Noun.

neut.

. Neuter.

num.

. Numeral.

0. . . .

. Onomatopoeic Form.

p., pres.

. Present.

perf. .

. Perfect.

pers. pron.

. Personal Pronoun.

pi., plur. .

. Plural.

poss. pron.

. Possessive Pronoun.

prep. .

. Preposition.

pron. .

. Pronoun.

sing. .

Singular.

Swah.

. Swahili.

Byn. . . .

. Synonym.

trans.

. Transitive.

V. . . .

. Verb.

The numbers in brackets, thus : (1), (2), (6), etc., refer to the
class of noun.

The Perfect form of all verbs is given in brackets after the
stem.

(163)

YAO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY.

A- (1), pera, pron, connect, he

she, it.
-A, prep,y of, for : -a cheni ? whose?

-a chi ? what kind of ? -a

chiehi ? what for ?
ACHA, ACHi, plur* prefix. Class

2, see M'j Mw-, Mu- or the

stem to which these prefixes

are attached.
ACHAMBA (2), women.
ACHIKULU (2), mother (always

used with the poss, pron, : e,g.

achikuluwangu, achikulu-

gwe, etc.).
ACHiMBUMBA (2), women.
ACHIM8YBNE (2), themselves.
ACHiMWENB (2), an honorific

used among natives, but

familiar. Used also in refer-
ence to an elder brother.
AKAWE, conj,, but, except (^lyiore

emphatic than nam bo).
AKO, dem. pron.y there (near).
-AKO, poss. pron,j thy (familiar or

contemptuous) ; one's.
AKULA, dem. pron,j there, over

there (distant).
AKULU (2), elder brother; (syn.

achimwene).
AKUNO, dem. pi'on., here.
-AKWE, poss. pron.f his, her, its ;

also.
AKWEGO (2), wife's aunt, uncle,

or parent ; wife of maternal

uncle, etc. (vide Appendix 11).
AKWELUMB (2), maternal uncle.
-ALAKWE, pron., he, the man we

were speaking of ; plur., you,

they.

ALAMU (2), contemporary re-
latives by marriage (vide

Appendix IF).
ALUMBU (2), brother, sister.
AMAO (2), mother, maternal

aunt (vide Appendix IT).
AMBi, therefore : Ambi uli ?

Well, what about it?
AMBUJE (2), any grand relation,

and those of wife ; a title of

respect.
AMBUSANGA (2), friend (of same

sex), paramour (of opposite

sex).
XnX ? (indicates a question).
-ANA, adj. pron., having, of;

Juana machili, a strong man.
-ANA -OSE, adj. pron., every one :

Mundu juana jnose, every

single man.'
A NAG A, conj., if.
-ANGALi, adj. pro^i., not having,

without : Mundu juangcUi

machili, a weak man.
-ANGU, poss. pro^i., my.

-ANGUNE,

poss. pron., mine.

my

own.

-AG, poss. pron., their.

APA, dem. pron., here.

APALA, dem. pron., there, over
there (distant).

APALi, there is, he is there.

APANO, dem. pron., here.

-API ? adj. pron., which ? what ?
Nyumba japi ? which house ?

APO, dem. pron., there (near).

ASONo, ASONOGO (2), wife, hus-
band, betrothed.

ASYENE (2), owner ; Asyene
musi, the headman of a
village.

(164)

IfAO-fiNGLlSfl VOCABULABT

16S

ATATl (2), father, uncle, paternal
aunt ; {vide Appendix II),

-ATI ULi ? What kind of ? Nyu-
mba jati uli? what kind of
house ?

B

BALALA-BALAtiA, 0., in confusion,
" higgledy-piggledy," pell-
mell.

BATA (9), calm.

BUKU (9), book {Engl.y sometimes
sing. (1)), plur. mahuku (6).

BWANA (1), master, sir, (Swah.),

CH

-CHA, V. (-chele), dawn ; clear up
(after rain) : Satnhano kuchehj
it is dawn now ; pe kwacheUy
at dawn.

CHAJiLA, adv. 71., fertile: Chi-
lambo cha chajilay a fertile
country.

CHAKA (7), year ; festival : Pa
chaka, next year ; mwachesOj
last year ; mwacheju8% the
year before last ; namyaka,
this year.

CHAKACHi ? when ?

CHAKULYA (7), food.

CHALA (7), finger, toe : Cha

chikongo, thumb, great toe ;

cha nyonje, little finger or toe ;

chakulanjila, index finger ;

cha chilikati, middle finger.
-CHALiLA, V. (-chalile), persist,

resolve firmly.
CHALU (7), insolence.
CHA LUGALi, adv.j backwards.

CHALUMO, YALUMO, adv.y the

same ; together.
CHAMCHILEU, adv.^ length wisc.
CHAMCHITIPA, adv., crosswisc.
CHANACHE (7), derision, ridicule.
CHANASA (7), pity, mercy.
-CHAPA, V. l'chapile)j wash clothes

(by beating) ; {syn. -saula).

CHAU (7), the dry season (from

August to November).
-CHEJELA, V. {-chejele), be red,

pink, light brown.
-CHEJEU, adv., red, reddish,

pink : Juamchejeu, a " white "

man.
-CHEKULU, adv., old {of persons

only).
-CHELENGA, V. {-chelesile), move

quickly, be in a hurry.
CHEMWALi (1), a girl ; (esp.) my

sister.
'cHENENE, adv., niccly, well;

(for UCHENENE, ICHENENE).

CHENi, -A, pron., whose ? Kwa
cheni, to whom ? at whose
home ?

-CHENJECHESYA, V. (-chenje-
chesye), interfere, "butt in."

-CHESYA, v., (-chesisye), be sleep-
less, continue doing anything
all night : Lelo jichesisye ula,
it rained all night ; tuchesye
ung^asi, let us dance all night.

CHi-^ prefixed to the name of a
tribe signifies an attribute, or
the language of that tribe:
Lukanda Iwa ChiNyasa, a
physiognomy of the type of
the Anyasa tribe ; ChiNyasa,
their language.

CHI ? (with a noun), what?
which ? (see also -a).

CHiBUKU (7), a large book (Engl.).

CHICHI? what? Ana chichi?
What is the matter? ligongo
chichi? Why?

CHiCHiLi (7), a peg, a post.

CHiGAMBA (7), a patch.

CHiGOMBELO (7), a shaped piece
of wood for beating a floor
smooth.

CHiGONO (7), a sleeping-place
(hence a stooge) on a journey :
Akugona igono ilingwa petala ?
How many days' journey is
it?

CHiGWENEMBE (7), a rat trap.

166

A YAO GRAMMAR

CHiGWiLi (7), a stump of any-
thing worn down, e.g, an axe,
hoe.

CHiiGA (7), the thigh.

CHIJUMBA (7), a bird trap re-
sembling a ca|<e ; a cage.

CHIJUNI (7), a bird.

CHiKALAKALA (7), paper.

CHiKALAWESA (7), a fingernail,
toenail.

CHIKAMWAKAMWA (7), gOSSip :

Jua chikamwdkamiva, one who

is unable to keep a secret.
CHiKo (7), a ford, a landing-
place.
CHiKoi (7), a wooden spoon or

ladle.
CHIKOKO (7), a wild beast; a

weed
CHiKOLo^A (7^, the eyelid.
CHiKOsiMBi (7>, an oribi.
CHiKULA (7), a small ant hill.
CHiKULULu (7), copulation.
CHiKUMBA (T)y a flood.
CHiKUNGU (7), brass, a bracelet.
CHIKWEKWE ^7), a heap of grass,

leaves, reeas, etc.
CHIKWELU (7), a bamboo whistle.
CHiLAJA (7), a spud.
CHILAMBO (7), a country, a

district.
CHiLASi (7), a cartridge.
CHiLASYA (7), likeness.
CHILE, adv., in readiness.
CHiLiKATi (7), the middle,

centre ; (cf. mkatif inside).
CHiLiLi (7), an earthen platform

for a bed or seat.
CHiLiNDO (7), a watch house.
CHiLiNDASi (7), a race.
CHiLiSA (7), a house in which a

person has been buried; a

tomb.
CHILD, adv. n., at night : Pakati

chilo, midnight ; chilo cha

lelo, last nighx.
CHiLOLE, adv. n., overseeing :

jua chilohy an overseer.
CHiLONGO (7), a tobacco pipe.

CHiLO^A (7), a needle {esp. of
bamboo).

CHiLU (7), the body.

CHiLUMBA (7), an island.

CHiLUMBO (7), a knot.

CHiLUMi (7), rheumatism.

CHiLWELE (7), a disease, ill-
health.

CHiMANGA (7), maize.

CHIMANYILILO (7), a tokcu, ^

badge.

CHiMB£LETA (7), a loop-hole,
window.

-CHIMBICHISYA, v. {-chimbichi-
sye)f honour, treat with con-
sideration or respect.

CHiMBONGA (7), a walking-stick.

CHiMBUNDi (7), a fence sur-
rounding a house or houses.

CHiMEME, adv. n., stammering.

GHiNANGWA (7), cassava.

CHiNDANDA (7), a native bed-
stead.

CHiNDENDE (7), the heel.

CHiNDU (7), a thing, anything,
something : Kwangali chinduy
pangali kandu, it does not
matter.

-CHINGA, V. (-chinjile), herd
(cattle) ; protect.

CHiNG*ALANG*ALA (7), ueuralgic
pain.

chining'a, adv. n. (-wecheta),
(speak) in parables ; especially
80 that a third person may not
understand what is said.

-CHINYINDILA, V. {-chinyindile),
pack tightly, ram down.

CHiNYETANYETA (7), a fire-fly.

chipagala (7), a roof, rafters.

CHiPALA (7), a forge.

CHIP AND A (7), a peg in the wall.

CHIP AN JE (7), wealth, goods.

CHiPAPiKO (7, plur. 6), a wing.

CHiPEPELA (7), paper (Engl.).

CHiPEWA (7), a hat.

chIpI (7), darkness.

CHiPiNi (7), a metal stud worn
in the left ala of the nose.

YAO-BNGLISH VOCABULARY

167

CHIPISYA (7), a piece or frag-
ment of anything.

CHIPOLOPOLO (7), a bullet.

CHIPONGWE (7), an insult, de-
rision.

CHIPOWO (7), a hole (in a fence,
etc,) ; a rent (in cloth) ; a
window.

CHIPULA (7), a knife. .

CHIPULUPUTWA (7), a butterfly,
a moth.

CHIPUTIPUTI (7), the common
house-bat.

CHiPWA (7), a sister's son.

CHiSAGWA (7), a cluster of
bananas (contr. mkonga, a
bunch),

CHISAKO (7), a hut for the sick.

CHiSAMBA, -A, odj.y green (in
colour, contr. -Wisi).

CHI8ANG0 (7), a divining instru-
ment of any kind.

CHiSAU (7), and adv,, like, like-
ness : Chine chisau ehelechi,
another like this ; chisau
chakwe chati uli ? What is it
like?

CHiSELo (7), a round shallow
basket.

CHisiCHi (7), a projecting stump
or root.

CHisiMA (7), a well.

CHisiMOPYA (7), the first rains
(contr,y mtuluka),

CHisiMU, (idv.j really, truly,
indeed.

CHisiSA ^7), the fireplace in a
native nouse.

CHI8I8ILA (7), damp.

CHisi<^iLO (7), a stopper, cork.

CHISOGOSI (7), fruit (including
berriesy etc).

CHisoNDE (7), a maize-cob
stripped oi the grain.

CHisopo (7)j a fish-hook.

CHisoTi (7), a cap.

cHisui (7), a leopard.

CHisuKULU (7), a grandchild

(also MWISUKULU).

cHisusi (7), a nest.

CHISWANI (7), plur, (8), rubbish

(withered leaves, stalks, etc).
CHiSYANO (7), iron, steel.
CHiSYEPELA (Pa), adv,, apart.
CHiTAGU (7), a puzzle, parable.
CHITANDA (7), a corpse.
CHiTANGA (7), a large round

mat ; a splint.
CHiTELETELE ^7), a crate for

carrying fowls.
CHITEMA, adv., quickly.
CHiTENGU (7), a native stool.
CHiTETE (7), a ^sshopper.
CHITIPA (7), width : -a ehitipa,

-ana chitipa, wide.
CHiTUKUTA (7), sweat ; heat.
CHiTUMBiLi (7), a species of

monkey.
CHiTUMBO (7), the stomach

(matv/mbo, intestines); a

pregnant womb.
CHiTUNDU (7), a fowl-coop; a

pigeon-cote.
CHiTUNGULU (7), the bamboo

hoop securing the rafters of a

round house in position ;

(hence) a wheel, a child's hoop.
CHiTUTU (7), a rubbish-heap.
CHiuLA (7), a toad.
CHiULO (7), froth ; scum ; spume.
CHiULU (7), a wild cat.
CHiUNiCHiLo (7), a lid, a cover.
CHiwALAMA (7), a klip-spriuger.
CHiwALAWALA (7), a scorpion,

a poisonous centipede.
CHiWAYA (7), a frying-tin, a

Maxim gun.
GHii^LA, adv., same as before ;

still there.
cHiwiGA (7), an earthenware pot

of any kind.
-CHOCHOLA, V. (-chochwele), clear

the bush ready for a new

garden.
CHOME (7), a cat.
CHONDE, " I beseech you."
CHUKU (7), the rainy season

(December to April/

168

A YAO GBAMMAB

CHULUGO (7), a cooking-pot {also

CHIULUQO).

-CHULUKA, V. (-chulwiche), be

many, be too many.
CHUMA (7), beads.
-CHUULA, V. {-chuu)ile)y take out

of water.

D

-DANDAULA, V, {'dandaw%le)y
grumble : Ngudandaula, I am
sorry.

-DODOMAjV. {-dodweme)f hesitate.

E

ELO, adv., Yes.

-ENE (withd, char.)f real, genuine.
-BNU, po88, pron,y your.
-ENUMWE, po88. pron,y your own.
ETi ? Is it 80 ? Is it not so ?

(Expecting an affirmative

answer),
-ETU, posB, pron*, our.
-ETUWE, po88. pron.j our own.

G

-OA is the eontinuative suffix ;
it is used with verbs only.
After final e or i it becomes -je.

'gala for AGALA.

-GALAGATA, V, {-galogatHe) roll
about on the ground (espec-
ially in salute).

-GALAUKA, V, (-galawiche)j be
turned round, be overturned,
turn back.

-GALAUSYA, V, (-galawisye), turn
round (cans.).

-GAMBA, V. (-gambile), just to — ,
merely to — (vide page 82) ;
speak of ; " mean."

-GANDA, tj. (^gandile)f be thin,
become thin.

-GANISYA, V. ('gani8i8ye)j think,
consider.

-GaWa, V, (-gaibile), cut up.

-GAWANYA, V. ('ga{benye)f divide.

GE mo^a'gano, adv., nowadays,
latterly.

•G o L o K A, V, (-golweche), be
straight.

-GOLOBYA, V. (-golwesye), be just.

-GOMA, V, (-gomele), lose a case
at law ; tap (rubber).

-GOMBA, 17. (-gombele^ beat,
sound (e.g. drww, bugle) ; fire
(a gun) : -gomba Itdusi, whistle
(with the mouth).

-GONA, V, (-gonile), lie down ;
sleep : Kugona mHugono, to
sleep, be asleep.

-GOPOLA, V. ('gopwele)y untie.

-GOPOLBLA, V. (-gopolele)y explain.

-GOSA, V. (-gosele), preserve,
observe traditional prohibi-
tions (mipingusi) ; with re-
flexive ** it-," refrain from.

-G o w o L A, V. (-goihele), reap
(maize).

-GULUKA, 17. (-gulunche), fly.

-GUMA, V. (-gumile), bark (of a
dog).

-GUMBA, V. (-gumbile), plaster,
mould : Kugumba njelwa, to
make bricks.

-GUMBALA, 17. (-gumbele), be full.

-GUMILA, V. (-gumisile), scream.

-GWA, V. (-gwile), fall ; occur :
Tulole itiigwe, let us see what
happens.

-GWAGULA, V. (-^wagwile\ strip
off bark or skin, nay.

-GWALA, V. (-gwasile)^ hide ; dis-
appear.

-GWE, conn, pron., his (used only
with words denoting relation-
ship).

-GWESELA, 17. (-gwesele)y be sleepy,
** only half awake."

ICHENENE, adv.j nicely, well.
iCHo! "Let me pass," "May
I come in?"

YAO-BNGLISH VOOABULABY

169

-IKA, V. (-iche), come, arrive,

reach.
-IMBA, V, {'imbile), swell.
-INA, V, (-inile), dance.
INGA (8), rations, food for a

journey.
INOINO, adv.j in this manner.
-ISYA, V, (-isisye), sigh ; Kwisya

uled, to be " bored."
-ITUKA, V. (-itwiche\ go off (of a

trap).
iTUNGuu (8), onions.
lYOYO, adu., thus.

-JA, V, i'jile), go.

-JALUCHILWA, V. {'jaluchilwe),

be light (in weight).
-JALUKANGANA, V. (-jalukangene),

be nimble, active.
-JALUSYA, V. (-jalwisye), be inso-
lent, disrespectful.
-JAMBUCHILA, v. ('jambuchile),

infect, be infectious (of dis-
ease).
-JAMILA, V. (-jamisile), scream.
-JAM UK A, V. ('■jamwiche)^ scold,

rebuke.
-JANQA, V. {-janjile), answer,

reply.
-JANGUYA, V. i'jangwiye), make

haste.
-JANIKA, V. ('janiche)j spread out

(to dry).
-JA8A, V. (-jasile), throw away ;

lose ; bury.
-JASAMA, V. (-jaseme), gape, yawn :

'jasama mwaju, yawn.
-JASIMA, V. (-jasime), lend ; borrow

(temporarily, cf. -kongola).
-JATU8YA, V. (-jatwisye), dry by

heat (fire, as opposed to sun,

cf. -JANIKA).

-JAULA, V. (-jawile), go.

-JE, continiiative suffix, used only

with verbs (see -ga).
-JEGAMA, V. ('jegeme), lean

against.

jele'mianja'jo (pron.), those,
** that lot " (refers to a number
of people collectively).

-JELUSYA, V. (-jelwisye), advise.

-JEMBECHEYA, V. (-jembecheye),^
wait, have patience.

-JENANILA, V. (-jenanile), suffice.

-JENDA, V. (-jesile), go, walk :
'jendajenda, go for a walk.

-JENELA, V. (-jenele), spread (e.g.
a flood, rumour) ; suffice.

-JENJELA, V. (^-jenjele), prepare
medicine, dispense.

-JEPEPALA, V. (-jepepele), be thin
(of cloth ^ etc.).

-J E s E M u L A, V. (-jesemwile),
sneeze.

-JIGALA, V. (-jigele), carry, bring.

-JIGANYA, V. ('jigenye), teach.

JIKA, JiKAPE, adv., alone.

-JIKUTA, V. (-jikwite), be satisfied,
have eaten enough.

-JiLA, V. (-jile), say.

-JILANA, V. (-jilene), agree to-
gether, match.

-JIMA, 17. (-jimi), stand ; refuse.

-JIMBA, V. (-jimbile), sing.

-JIMBALA, V. (-jimbele), be fat (of
a person).

-JIMIKA, V. (-jimiche), set up-
right.

-JIMUKA, V. (-jimwiche), get up
(from a recumbent position) ;
be in good health.

-JIMUSYA, V. (-jimwisye), caus.
of 'jimuka ; (hence), rouse.

-JINA, V. (-jinile), dye black.

-JINAMA, V. (-jineme), stoop.

-JINICHIX.A, V. (-jinichile), bless ;
pass., prosper.

-JiNJi, adj. pron., much, many.

-JiNJiLA, V. (-jinjile), enter ; suc-
ceed (to a position) : Ngo-
ngumanyilila kwajii^ilile, I
don't know which way he
went.

-JiPi, adj., short.

-JISA, V. (-jisile), come.

-JITA, V. l-jitile), pour out.

170

A YAO GllAMMAtl

-JiTiCHiSYA, r. {-jitichisye)y con-
Bent.
-JIULA, t\ ('jiwile)^ become ripe

(fruity abscess).
-JIWA, V, ('ji{bile)j steal.
-JOCHA, V. {'jocheh)j burn.
-JOGA, V, {'josile), bathe.
-JOGOPA, V, (-jogwepe)y fear, to be

afraid.
-JOGOYA, V. {'jogweye)j frighten ;

be frightful.
-JOKOLA, V, {"jokwele^ take out

of the fire.
-JOLOWA, V, (-jolwevbe)f be soft.
-JOMBOKA, t;. ('jomhweche)y cross

(a river),
-JONANGA, V. ('jonasile)y spoil,

waste.
-JONGA, V, ('jonjele)^ suck.
-JONGOLA, V, (-jongwele), straight-
en.
-JONJECHESYA, V. (-jonjechesye),

increase (quantity),
-JOTA, V, {'jotele), warm oneself

at the fire ; (-lijota is more

tmial),
JUALAKWE» pron,', he, that one

(referring to a person already

mentioned),
JUAWii (1), a thief (for JUAUWii).
-JUGA, V, (-jusile), beg for, or

from.
-JUMi, adj.y living.
-JUMILILA, V, ('jumilile), dry up.
-JUMU, adj,, dry.
-JUJJULA, V, (-jumwile^ be dry.
"JUWA, V. (-juibile^ hide.
-JUWILILA, V, (-juibilile), lie in

wait for, ambush.

K

KA (diminutive prefix),
-KACHULA, V, (-kachioile), split

up ; tear of! (e,g, a branch) ;

tear up.
-KAGULA, V, (-kagvnle), follow.
KALA, adv.y formerly, sometime

ago : Kalakala, long ago.

-KALAMUKA, V. (-kalamwiche), be

cunning.
-KALAKGA, V, (-kalanjile), fry.
KALiLOLE (13), a looking-glass.
KALINGWA, cidv.y how often?

how many times ?
-KAMUGHISYA, V. (-kamuchisye),

help.
-KAMULA, V, ('kamwile)j seize,

catch, hold ; be in possession

of.
KAMWA, PA (16^, the mouth.
-KANA, V, (-kan%le\ refuse ; deny.
KANGA, conj.y wnether; either

... or; perhaps.
-KANGA, V, ('kanjih), fell (a tree),
-KANGAMALA, V, (-kangamele),

make haste.
KANUNDU (I), a cigarette.
KAPOLO (1) (plur., achikapolo)y a

slave.
-KASA, V, ('ka^ile)j smash, break

in pieces, ravage.
-KATA, V, (-katile), cut.
KATASI, adv,y some time ago ;

katasipe, quite recently ; k<Ua-

sVkakty that time.
KATEMA (13), time, occasion ;

katema*chif when?
KATUNDU (1) (plur,, achikc^ndu

(2), ntiwndM (10)), a load. Often

u>sed to denote the carriers;

MSIGO is a better word for a

load,
-kXwa, V, (■'kaib%le)y pluck (fruit),

gather (vegetables^ etc),
-KA^A, V, ('ka{bile)y delay; last

a long time.
KAWILI, adv,y twice ; kaHbili-

kaibiliy often.
-KOCHELA, V, (-kochele), or intens,

-KOCHESYA, come to anchor,

reach the shore.
-KODOLA, V, (-kodwele), beckon,

summon by a sound or ges-
ture.
-KOKO^A, 17. ('kokwe'Cbe)y loiter,

linger.
-KOLA, V, ('kwete)y have, possess.

TAO-ENGIilSH VOCABULABT

171

-KOLANGA, V, (-kolosUe), summon,

invoke, mention.
-KOLEKA, v. (-koleche), hang up.
-KOLELWA, V, (-kolelwe), be drunk.
-KOLESYA, V. (-kolesisye), light

(a frre).
-KOLOGANYA, V, (-kologenye), stir,

mix by stirring.
-KOLQMA, V. (-kolweme)y snore,

snort.
-K o M A, V, (-komilej -komele),

hammer in, strike with an

instrument ; reach, extend.
-KOMALA, i\ {'komeleY be ripe.
-KOMANGALA, V. (-komangele)^

come to maturity, be full-
grown, become ripe.
-KOMASYA, V. ('komasisye)^ greet,

salute.
-KOMBOLA, V. {-komhwele)y be

able {also -pakombola).
-KOMBOLEKA, V. (-komboleche)j

be possible.
-KONDWA, V. {'kondilweY be

happy, cheerful, pleased.
-KONGOLA, V. {-kongwele)j lend,

borrow {for some time; cf,

-jasima). Ngongole (9), a debt.
-KONG WE, adj,j female {of persons

only).
-KOPA, V, {-kopele), hook out of a

hole {especially of catching

crabs),
-KOPOKA, V, {'kopweche), come

out, go out, emerge.
-K O 8 O M o L A, V. {-kosomwele)j

cough.
-KOSYA, V, {'kosisye), reheat,

warm up.
-KOSYA, V, {-kosisye)j care for.
-KOTO, adj.y beautiful, pretty.
Ku, prep, J to, from, at.
-KULA, V, {-ktf^ile), grow, become

bigger : Samhano akusile, he

is full-grown now.
-KULULUCHILA, V. {'kululuchile)^

forgive.
-KULUMiKA, V, {-kulumiche)y be

on point of departure.

-KULUMISYA, V. trafis, {'kulu-
misye), hasten, cause to make
haste ; make or get ready.

-KULUNGWA, adj.j big, large,
grown-up.

-KULUPILILA, V, {-kulupilile)j
trust, believe in.

-KULUPUKA, V, {-kulupiviche)j
escape.

-KULUSYA, V. {-kulwisye)y misa.

KUMANGWETU, KUMANGWAO, etc.,

home.
KUMASIKU8IKU, adv,, before

dawn.
-KUMBUCHILA, V, {-kum^chUe),

remember.
KUMBUJO, adv.y in front, in the

future.
-KUMBUSYA, V, {'kumhvnsye)y re-
mind.
KUMCHIJI, adv,j the left, to the

left.
K u M K u L I, adv., upstream ;

ashore; to the higher

ground.
KUMLYO, adv.y the right, to the

right.
KUMPOTO, adv., the north.
KUMWELA, adv.y the south.
-KUNDA, V, {-ktindile)y consent,

allow.
KUNDAwi, adv,y in the morning :

Kundaibi kwakwey next morn-
ing. ^
KUNDAWIPE, adv., early in the

morning.
-KUNGA, V. {'kunjile)y string (a

how, bed, or musical instru-

ment).
KUNGULO, (16), the throat.
-KUNGULUKA, V. {-kungulwi-che),

converse, chat, pay a call.
KUNOKUNO, adv.y nere, in this

very place.
KUNYUMA, adv.y behind, in the

rear.
KUSA, adv.y outside.
KUSI, adv.y down, on the ground ;

kusi kuy below, beneath.

172

A 7A0 GBAMMAB

KU8YENE, adv., Very; kusye-

«YENE, extremely.
KU8YET0, adv.j to the other side

(of an obstacle) ; (n.), a head

wife ; a term of resplect used

to old women.
KUTi, conj.y that, so that {lit.^

saying).
-KUWALA, V, (-kuibele), stumble,

trip up {over a root, etc).
-KUWULA, -KUULA, r. (-kuwile),

tap out a hoe or axe from its

handle.
-KUYA, V. (-kuyiye)^ pursue, fol-
low about.
KW-, for words beginning thusy

see also J., /., X., W. (vide

Chap, I).
KWA, prep, J to, for, from, at (used

with names of persons).
KWA CHENi? adv., at whose

house? to whom?
KWAKUJINJI, adv.y very much,

very often.
KWAKUTALIKA, adv., far.
KWAKUWANDIKA, adv.y near.
KWALi, KWAUNi, adv., perhaps ;

" I don't know."
KWALIKO, ctdv., possibly (implies

doubt).
KWAMNOPE, adv., extremely.
KW AN AULA, adv., far away.
KWANGALi, "there' is not,"

** there are not."
KWAPi ? adv., where ?
KWASWELE, PE, at suusct (past) ;

kuli kv>swele, at sunset (pres.).
-KWA^A, V. (-kwaibile), crawl.
-KWELA, V. (-kwesile), climb.
KWELEKO, adv., there.
-KWJ^MBA, V. (-kwembile), smoke

(tobacco, Indian hemp) ; suck.
KWENDE, interject, Come on ! ;

.conj., well . . .
KWENE, adv.f really (with a

verb).
-KWESYA, V. (-kwesisye), raise ;

re/?., boast, oe conceited.
-KWEWA, V. (-kwetbile), curdle.

KWIMAJIMA (KWAULA), (to go) for

a walk.
KWiNANi, adv., above, in the

sky ; kwinani ku (or kwakwe),

prep, and adv., above.
-KWINDIMALA, V. (-kwindimele),

be hard, stiff, firm.
KWITINJI, adv. (for kulitinji),

in, or to the bush.
KWIWANDA, adv., down stream,

to the lower g^und.

•LAGA, V. (4asile), be poor, un-
happy, unfortunate.

-LAGALA, V. ('lagele), dry par-
tially, drain (neut).

■LAGUSYA, V. (-lagwisye), give a
present ; accuse.

■LAJISYA, V. (4ajisye), "order"
(of goods) ; give a commis-
sion.

■LALIKA, V. (-laliche), gather an
army or caravan j subsidize.

-LAMB A, V. (-lambile), pay obei-
sance ; lick.

•LAMBUSYA, V. (-lambwisye), tell
lies.

-LAMULA, V. (-lamwile), judge ;
decide a case-at-law.

■LANDANA (na), V. (-landene), re-
semble.

-LANGA, V. ('lanjile), take leave
(say good-bye) ; keep (tame
animals).

•LANGANA (na), V. (-langene),
agree (to do anything), arrange
(a course of a^ition).

-LANJILA, V. ('lanjile), point out
to.

•LAPA, V. (-lapile), be surprised.

•LAPITA, V. (-lapite), lick.

-LAW A, V. (-laihile), start early in
the morning.

•LAWALAWA, V. (-la'Cbalaibile),
wander about.

-LECHELELA, V. (-lechelele), for-
give. Syn. -KULULUCHILA.

YAO-BNGLISH VOCABULAET

178

-LEKA, V. {-le»ile)j leave, stop
{neut,\ let alone.

-LEKANA, V, (-lekene), be dif-
ferent.

-LEKASYA, V, (-lekasisyejj stop
(trans,), prevent.

LELO, ddv.j to-day. Ghilo cha
lelo, last night.

-LEMALA, V. {'lemele), be steep.

-LEMBA, V, (-lembile), mark,
write.

-LEMWA, V, ('lemwile)j sin, do
wrong.

-LEPELA, V. ('lepelejj fail.

-LEU, adj,, long.

-LEUPA, V, (-levnpe), be long, be
too long.

LI-, for words beginning thus, see
also LY-.

-LI, -LIJI (see ^A).

LI BAN DA (5), a gable-ended
house.

LiBWETA (5), a box.

LicHiKA (6), a reed mat.

LiCHiLA (5), a hundred.

LicHiNGA (5), a cattle-kraal.

LIGA8A (5), the palm of the hand.

LiGOMBO (6), a banana.

LiGULO (6X and adv,, the even-
ing, in the evening.

LiGULU^E (5)^ a bush-pig.

LiGUO, LiGUWO (5), a gad-fly
(Tabanus, spp,).

LiJANi (6), a baboon.

LiJELA (5), a hoe.

-LIJIGANYA, V, (-lijigenye), learn.

Lijusi (6), and adv., the day be-
before yesterday : Majusi
*gala, those past times.

LiKAU (6), spoor.

LiKOKA (5), a drag-net.

LiKONDE (6), long grass ; " the
bush."

LiKOSA (6), an ivory bracelet.

LiKOYO (S), the shoulder.

LiKULE (6), a jackal.

LiKUMBO (5), spoor.

LiKUMi (b), ten.

LitowE (5), a word.

LiLUNQO ^6), the knee.
-LIMA, V, (-limile), hoe.
LiNA (6), a name.
-LINDA, V, (-lindile), wait.
LiNDANDA (6), an egg,
-LINGA, V, (-linjile), try, measure.
-LINGWA, pron, adj,, how many ?
LINO (6), a tooth.
LIPENDE (5), the skin.
LIPESA (5), an opportunity, open-
ing.
LiPULULU (5) an uninhabited

area, desert.
LiPWETECHELA (5), a tomato.
LiSEGWE (6), noisy talk.
Lisi (5), the side of a stream

or lake : Lisi alino, on this

side ; lisi alila, pesi, on the

other side.
LisiMBA (5), a lion.
LisiMBO (6), a hole.
Liso, adv,, yesterday.
Liso (6), the eye.
LisoGO (5), a wild dog.
LisoLOSOLO (5), an earthenware

bottle.
LisuGULU (6), an ant-hill.
LiTAJi (5), an egg,
LiTAKA (6), soil, earth.
LiTALA (5), a path.
LITAMANDA (5), a pond.
LiTANDA (5), a pool, a stream.
LITANGA (5), a door.
LiTA^ALE (5), a pool of Water in

a plain.
LiTEKENYA (5), the "jigger"

(Sarcopsylla penetrans).
LiTENDE (6), a kind of hornet.
LiTETE (6), a reed.
LITEWO (5), a cobra.
LiTiKA, adv. n., unfilled, "half,"

not fully grown.
LiTiNJi (6), long grass, (hence)

the bush.
LiTit^i ^5), a valley.
LiTi^o (6), the married women's

initiation ceremonies.
LiTOGA (6), the liver. (Theplur,

MATOGA is generally used,)

174

A TAO GBAMMAB

LiTONJi (6), cotton.

LiTUKU (6), a blister. (Syn.
litusa).

LiTULi (6), a large wooden mor-
tar in which grain is pounded.

LiTUMBi (6), a hill, mountain.

LiTUNU (6), a hysena.

LITUSA (6), Syn. LITUKU.

LiTUTO (6), a heap or ridge of
soil.

LIU (6) {no plur,)j ashes.

LiUNDE (6), a cloud.

LIUNDIKA (5), catarrh ; bron-
chitis.

LIUNGU (5), a pumpkin (phir.,
mongu).

LIUNIKO (6), a lid.

LiuPA ^5), a bone.

LiUTO (6), a place ; " room," ac-
commodation.

LiV^AGO (6), an axe.

Li^ALiLA, V, (-liibalile), forget.

Li^AMBA (6), cause of quarrel ;
a reason.

LiWAMBA (6), a fish-scale.

Li^ANGA (6), a sore, wound,
ulcer.

Li^ATA (5), a duck or drake.

-Li^ATA, V, {'li{bete)y tread,
trample on.

-LOGA, 17. ('lo8ile)j bewitch.

-LOKOTA, V. (-lokwete)j pick up.

-LOLA, V. {-lolite)f look, see.

-LOMBELA, V, {'lomhele)f marry.

-LONGANA (na), V. (4ongene)j ac-
company, go together.

-LONGOLELA, V, (-Ton^olele), pre-
cede, guide.

-LONJELA, V. (-lonjele)j stay some
time in one place ; prolong
one's stay.

-LOSYA, V, (-losisye)j show.

-LOWEKA, V, (4o'Cbeche)j steep,
soak (trans,),

-LO^ELA, V, {'loihele), be foolish ;
be weak ; be plentiful.

LUAMBi (11) (j>l,y nyambi), a
branch.

liUAU (11) (p^., nyau)j a net.

LUCHANAMILA (11) (j)l,j njana-
mila)f a verandah post.

LUGOMO (11) {pi., ngomo)j a lip,
beak.

LUGONO (11), sleep.

LUGWA (11) (pl,f ndugwa), a crack.

LUJUCHi (11) (pi,, nyuchi), a bee ;
pi. honey.

-LUKA, V, {'luchile)y wef ve (hask-
ets),

LUKALALA (11) (pi,, ngalalo), a
basket.

LUKOLE (11) (pLj ngole), a veran-
dah room.

LUKOLOMA (11) (pi,, ngoloma), a
drain, a trench.

LUKONGOLO (11) (pL, mdkongolo,
ngongolo\ the leg.

LUKONJi (pi,, ngonji), string,
rope.

LUKOSi (11), the neck.

LUKOSYO (pL, ngosyo), race, tribe,
clan. Ngosyongosyo, different
kinds.

LUKOWO (11), desire for some-
thing "tasty" ; " a tasty bit."

LUKUJU (11) (pl.j nguju), a fig.

LUKWAMBALA (11), I'ope of palm
leaf.

LUKWi (11) (pi., ngwi), a piece
of firewood.

LULAWO (11) (pi., malaibo), the
first camp on a journey.

LULELE, adv., gratuitously, with-
out good reason.

LULIMI (11) (pi., ndimi), the
tongue.

LULUSI, -GOMBA, V,, whistlc.

-LUMA, V. (-lumile), bite, sting ;
taste.

-LUMBANA, V, (-lumbene), be-good.

-LUMBIKANYA, V. (-lumhikenye),
fasten together, conjoin.

-LUME, adj., male (of persons
only),

LUMEMBE (11) (pL, memhe), a fly.

LUNDA (11), wisdom.

-LUNGU8YA, V, (-lungwisye), de-
liver a verbal message.

YAO-ENGLISH VOCABULAET

175

LUNo (11), site of new village ;
a new village.

LUfAMBA (11) {pi, mbamha), a
small brown ant.

LUPANDA (11), a conical mound
made at the boys' unyago;
hence the unyago itself.

LUPANGA (11), a large knife,

- sword.

LUPETA (ll)(pi., mheta), a sift-
ing-basket.

LUPiYA (11), a shilling ; pi, ,
mhiya, money.

LUPUKUSO (11), a swizzle-stick.

LUPULA (11), the nose.

LUPYO (11) (pi., mbyo), the kid-
ney.

LUSAMBO (11) (pZ., «am6o), wire.

LU8A8A (11) (pZ., 5<wa), a parti-
tion wall.

LUSASU (11) (j)L, 8asu)y a piece of
fire-wood.

LUSENGA (11), dregs ; coarse
grains in nour.

LusuLO (11) (pL, sulo), a stream.

LUTANDO (11), watershed, rising
country between streams.

LUTENJE (11), a fence.

LUTUMBA (11), a corner.

LUULO (11) (pi. , ulo)y a water-pot.

LUUMBO (11) (pl.,\mbo\ a hair.

LUUNDU (11), dust.

LUWiLA, adv., n.j hoeing or weed-
ing a planted garden.

LWALA (11) (pi, , malwala), a rock.

-LWALA, V. ('lwadle)y be ill.

LY-, for words beginning thus^ see
also LI-.

-LYAj, V. (-lile)y eat.

LYUWA (11) (pL, mo'Cba), the sun,
a day.

M

M , prep., in.

MACHILA (6), fine paid by losing

side. (Port.), a palanquin.
MACHiLi (6), strength.
MAKALA (6), charcoal

MAKANi (6), dispute, argument.
MAKASi (6), scissors.
MAKOKOTO (6), the scrapings of a

pot.
MAKOMBO (6), food left over after

a meal.
MAKWELELo (6), a ladder.
-MALA, V. (-masile), end, finish

(neut.).
MALAWI, adj., to-morrow.
MALEKANO (6), a road-fork ;

cross-roads.
MALiLE (6), a boundary.
MALiLO (6), a mourning.
MALiNDi (6), treachery ; plots.
MALiPiLO (6), pay, wages.
-MALISYA, V. (-malisye), finish

(trans. ).
MALO (6), place, room.
MALONDA (6), barter: Ya ma-

londa, things for barter.
mang'omba (6), feathers ; hair

of animals.
-MANYA, V. (-manye), be ac-
quainted with.
MANYASi (6), grass.
-MANYILILA, V. (-manyiUle),

know, understand.
MAPEMBA (6), sorghum.
MASAME (6), a deserted village

or house.
MASENGO (6), work.

MASETE (6), husks.

MASiKA (6), the harvest season

(April to end of Jun^).
MASOKA (6), madness ; the spirits

of the (lead.
MATA (6), saliva.
-MATA, V. (-matile), smear. ,

MATALILA (6), hail.
MATE (6), meaning, sense.
MATiMBE (6), alluvial soil (a

stream ga/rden).
MAKALA (6), spots, stripes.
MAWELE (6), breasts ; mother's

milk ; a clan.
MAWiGA (6), the fire-stones ; also

MAIGA.

MBALAPi (9), a sable antelope.

176

A YAO GRAMMAB

(9\ a plate.

(9), the side ; pa mhalif

MBALE
MBALI

aside!
MBANGA (9\ a cave.
MBANGO (9), a wart-hog.
MBA^ALA (9), a bush-buck.
MBEJU (9), seed, a plant.
MBELA (9), a rhinoceros.
MBENDU (9), a genet-cat.
MBEPO (9), cold, wind.
MBESi (9), the end.
MBEU (10), cockroaches.
MBOLEMBOLE, adj., carefully,

gently.
-MBONE, adj,j ^ood.
MBONi (9), a witness, testimony.
MBOTE (9), hire, wages, pay ;

mbote ja chilo^ a bribe.
MBUGU (9), a cavity {in a tree,

etc) ; burrow {of an animal,

Syn. MUNJILO).
MBUJO, KU, adj.y in front, in the

future.
MBULA (9), the nostrils.
MBUMBA (1) {pLy acha'\ a

woman {lit, pot-maker).
MBUMU (9), panting, gasping,

{hence) asthma.
MBUNDA (9), a zebra.
MBUNGO (9), wind.
MBUNJU (9), an eland.
MBUSi (9), a goat.
MBUTU (9), small bundles of

grass for thatching.
MBWA (9), a dog.
MBWANDA (9), beans.
MBWANi (9), the sea coast.
MCHANDA (l), a youth.

MCHECHE, four.

MCHiQA (S\ a root.
MCHiLA (3), a tail.
MCHiMWENE (1), a chicf, {pi,

ain^wene),
-MELA, V. {-mesile), grow (of

plants).
MELE, MELEPE, adv,, ou purpose.

MEMBE {pi. of LUMEMBE, a

fly).

MENEMA, conj.f therefore.

MENYA, V, {-menyile)y beat ; peel

(fruit).
-MENYANA, V. {tnenyene), figlft.
MESA, V. {-mesile), pluck (a bird).
MESi (6), water.
MGAO (3), a gourd cup.
MGOJi (3), bark rope.
MGOMBA (3), a beam.
MGONGO (3), the loins.
MGULUGULU, adv., near.
MGUNDA (3), a garden.
MGWALANGWA (3), a Borassus
' palm.
MI-, for words beginning thuSf see

also MY-.
MiKULi (3), the hunting

grounds: Kwaula ku, to go
. shooting.
-MILA, V. {-misile), swallow.
-MINYA, V. {-minyile), squeeze ;

milk.
MJAKWE (1), his companion, its

fellow.
MJANGU (1), my companion ;

mjao, their companion.
MJENGWE (3), the bank of a

stream.
MJENU (1), your companion.
MJETU (1), our companion.
MJiNGA (1), a fool.
MKAKA (3), milk.
MKALO (3), a knife.
-MKAMBAKO, adv., male (of

animals).
MKATi, adv., inside.
MKEKA (3), a sleeping-mat made

of palm-leaf (Swah.).
-MKOLO, adj. . female {of animals).
MKOMELO (3), a mallet.
MKONGA (3), a bunch of bananas.
MKONO (3), the arm ; a cubit

{pi. makono).
MKUCHA, adj., two days after

to-morrow.
MKULi (3), the higher ground ;

{see also KU mkuli, mikuli).
MKUO {no pi.) (3), rust.
mkuti, conj., when {rel.), as for ;

seeing that.

YAO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY

177

MkWamba (3), a fathom.
MLAMBE (3), a boabab tree*
MLAMU (1), a brother-in-law,

etc. {vide Appendix IT),
MLANGO (3), a doorway : Vgula

pa mlango, open the doon
MLASA (3), palm-leaf.
MLASi (3), bamboo.
MLENDO (1), a stranger, a

traveller.
MLiLA (3), a watershed.
MLONDA (1), a watchman.
MLONGO (vide Appendix 11),
MLOWE {see mnowe).
MLUMBU {vide Appendix 11),

brother, sister.
MLUNGU ,(3), sugar cane ; a

week ; God.
m'mwenye (1), a Banian trader.
-MNONO, adj., little.
mnope, adv., very.
MNOU (3), flesh {of meat) ; pulp

{ofjruit),
MNOWE (3), maize which has

been husked and steeped,

{also mlo^e).
-MOGA, V, {-mosile), shave.

MONGU {see LIUNGU).

MOTO (3), fire, heat.

MOWA {see lyuwa).

mpIka, adv., until, as far as.

MPELA, adv., like, as if.

mpIka (3)^ a boundary.

MPiNGO, WA, a number of people
associated together.

MPiNGUSi (3), traditional pro-
hibition of a tribe.

MPiNi (3), the haft of a tool.

MPOTO, KU, adv., the north.

MPUNGA (3), rice.

MPWANGA, MPWAO, eto, {vide Ap-
pendix IT), younger brother
{of man), younger sister {of
woman).

MSAKA8A (3), the roof of a
house.

MSAKU (3), a bag.

MSAMiLO (3), a pillow, cushion.

MSANGA (3), sand.

MSANO (3), five.

MSAPE, adv., merely ; {with

noun), mere.
MSATi (3), centre pole of a

house ; a mast ; a present.
MSELA (3), a line.
MSENGo (3), a horn.
MSESO (3), a wood.
MSEU (3), a hoed road.
MSiGO (3), a load.
MsiKA (3), a market.
MSiNDA (3), a large village.
M8INGU (3), height.
MSOKO (3), a tax.
MSOKOLO (3), husked grain.
MSOMALi (3), a nail ; a peg.
M80N0, MSONOGO (1), husbaud,

wife {usually plural),
MSUNGU (1), a European.
Msusi (3), gravy.
MSWACHi (3), a piece of fibrous

wood used as a tooth-brush.
MTAMBALA (3), a bundle.
MTAU (3), perseverance.
-MTEGA, adj., useless, futile.
MTELA (3), a tree ; medicine.
MTEMBO (3), a corpse.

MTENDELE (3), pcace.

MTENGO (3), custom ; price.

MTEPA (3), the end, tip.

MTBSA (3), ground-nuts.

MTIMA (3), the heart ; pa—, the
chest.

MTiNDi (3), kind; nature ; (colour).

MTONDO, adv., the day after to-
morrow.

MTUKUTA (3), heat, warmth.

MTULUKA (3), the early rains.

MTUMBA (3), a truss of calico.

MTUTU (3), a plant used as fish-
poison.

MTWE (3), the head.

MU, prep., in.

MULUNGU (1), God.

MUNDU (1), a person.

MUNJiLO (3), the burrow of a
rat or other animal.

MUSI (3), a village.

MIJSI, adv., the day-time.

12

178

A YAO aBAMMAR

MW-, jor words beginning thus,

see also J, i, L, w (Chap. I).
-MWA, V, {-mwele), drink (modem

Yaofor -ng'wa).
MWACHEJUSI, adv., the year

before last.
MWACHE80, adv., last year.
-MWAGA, V. (-mwajile), scratch.
MWANACHE (1), a child.
MWANASi (1), a neighbour.
MWANDA, a large number.
MWANGALi, there is not, there

are not (in).
M WAN J A, going.

mwanja'mwe, pron., you there.
mwanja'wo, they, that fellow.
MWAYi (3), the poison ordeal.
MWENYE (1), a chief, {pi. achi-

mwenye).
MWE8I (3), the moon, a month.
-MWETULILA, V. {'inwetulile),

smile.
MWiPWA (1), a sister's son or

daughter (vide Appendix IT).
MWisi (3), a pestle.
MWiWA (3), a thorn.
MYA8I (4), blood.
-MYOLA, V. {-myosile), shave.

N

NA, conj., and, if; prep.^ with.
NACHi'^AMUNO, conj., although,

even if.
NAGA, conj., if.
NALWii (1), a chameleon.
NAMBAYA (with suhj. of verh), " I

had better — ."
NAMBO, conj., but ; though ;

except.
-NAMi, adj., false, lying.
NAMLONDOLA (1), a large kind

of hornet.
NAMOSE, conj., also, even.
NAMUNO, conj., also, even.
NAM YAK A, adv., thij year.
-NANDi, adj., little.
-NANDUPA, v. (-nandiuipe), be

few, be small.

NANGOLO (1), parent.

NA^A, conj., if.

-NAWA, V. (-TM^bile), wash the
hands.

NDA-NDA-NDA . . . (o.), in line.

NDALAMA (9), moucy.

NDANDA, PA, adv., in the begin-
ning ; in the first place.

NDANDALA (9), a koodoO.

NDANO (9), a story.
NDAwi (9), distance.
NDAwf (9), a conundrum.
NDEMBO (9), an elephant.
NDEO (9), a quarrel.
NDEU (9), a beard, moustache.
NDOGOLO (9), a water-buck.
NDOMONDO (9), a hippopotamus.
NDONDWA (9), a star. •
NDOPE (9), a reed-buck.

NDUMBA (pi. of LUTDMBA, a

corner of a house).

NDUNDU (pi. of KATUNDU, a

load).
NEMBO (9), tribal marks.
NGALA (9), a fresh -water crab.
NGANi (9), a saying ; pi. news.
NGANYA, PA, the meeting-place

of a village ; a courtyard ;

compound.
NGAPAGWA, nothing (see page 67).
NGATi, Is it not so? It is not

(copula),
NGOKWE (9), a grain-store.
NGOLOMBWE (9), a duiker.
NGOMA (9), a drum.
NGONDO (9), war.
NGONDOLO (9), a sheep.
NGONGO (9), a staff.
NGONGOLE (9), a debt.
NGOSE (9), a hartebeeste.
NGUKU (9), a fowl.
NGUMBi (9), flying white ants.
NGUNDA (9), the domestic pigeon.
NGUO (9), calico, cloth ; pi.

clothes.

NGWAMBA, adv., UO.

NGWAPA (9), the armpit.
NGWASi (9), the fish-eagle.
NGWENA (9), a crocodile.

YAO-fiNGLlSH VOCABULARY

179

NGWlME (9), a species of field-
mouse.
-ng'ambila, V, (-ng'ambile), swim.
-ng'anda, v. {-ng^aiidile), play.
ng'ombe (9), an ox, cow ; cattle.
-NG*WA, V, {-ng'wele), drink:

Ang'welBj he is drunk.
Ni, conj., and ; prep.y with ;

copula, is, are.
NiMKWE, " Let me try " ; " Let

us have a look."
Nipo, conj., and, and then.
NJASi (9), lightning.
NJATi (9), a buffalo.
NJELESA (9), lime.
NJENGWE (9), the water's edge.
NJETE (9), salt.

NJiNGA (9), a wheel ; a bicycle.
NJOTA (9), thirst : Njota ji-

ngwetcj I am thirsty.
Njrsi (9), a serval.
NJUWA (9), a dove.
NO, copula, is, are.
-NOLA, 1'. {-nosile\ sharpen.
NOMBE NA-, adv,, also.
-nong'a, V, (-nonyile), be sweet to

taste ; pleasant to experience.
-NONONO, adj,; hard, difficult.
NONOPA, V, {-nomwepe)j be hard,

difficult.
-NONYELA, V. (-iwwjele), like,

love.

NUMKWE (see NIMKWE).

-NUNGA, V. (-nunjile), stink.
-NUNJILA, V. {-nunjilile), have a

pleasant smell or taste.
NU8Y.V, V. (-nusisye), sniff at,

smell (act.): Sona jtutkunusya,

snuff.
-NYA, r. (-nyele), defaecate ; fall

(of rain).
-NYAKULA, V, (-nyakwile), lift,

raise.
-NYALA, «. (-nyoMle), wither.
NYALi (9), a lamp.
NYAMA (9), meat, game ; a buck.
NYAMBO (9), bait,
-NYANYA, V. (-nyanyile), itch.
NYASA (9), river, lake.

-NYENGA, V, ('nyenjile)j deceive,
cheat.

NYONO, so-and-so, "what's-his-
name," " what-d'you-call-it"?

-NYOi^A, V. (-nyo'(hile)j be damp.

NYUCHi (9), bees, honey.

NYUMA, KU, adv,, behind, in the
rear ; panyuma pakwe, after-
wards.

NYUMBA (9), a house.

NYUNDO (9), a hammer.

-NYUNYA, V, (^-nyunyile), sprinkle
with the hngere.

PA, prep. J at ; adv., when (also

PE, PO, Pi).

-PA-, verbal prefix, denotes

ability or possibility.
-PA, V. {-pele)j give. {The Obj,

Connect. Pers. Pron. is always

inserted) : Nimpe, give me ;

ambele juelejo, he gave that

man.
PA CHAKA, adv., next year.
PA CHANYA, adv., on top : Pa

chanya pa, on top of.
-PAGWA, V. {-pagwile)j be lx)rn ;

be present ; (Perf. form in

the sense of " there was

once," -^ce^t).
PAJii, adv.y alone.
-PAKA, V. {-pachile), smear, paint

on.
pakang'wa (16), the mouth.
PAKATi, adv., in the middle.
-PAKOMBOLA, V. {-pokombwele), be

able.
-PAKULA, r. {-pakwile), ladle out ;

serve (food).
PAKUTi, conj., seeing that ;

since.
PAKUWA, conj., because (lit,

being).
PAKWE PAKWE, adv., here and

there.
-PALASA, V, (-palasile), paddle (a

canoe) ; beckon.

180

A YAO GRAMMAR

-PAMBA, r. {-pamhile), light {a
lamp) ; dip a handful (mbamu)
of ugali in the relish {mboga)»

PA MBESi, at the end.

-PAMBULA, V. {^ambwile), put to-
gether, add.

PAMO, adv. J together ; at one
time.

PAMPEPE {see PAMO).

PA MTIMA (16), the chest.

PANANDI, adv,j a little. Panandi-
panavdij a little at a time,
slowly.

-PANDA, V. {'pandile), plant.

PANE, adv., perhai)s ; some-
times ; conj.y if.

PANGAKAWA, adv., SOOU.

PANGALi, there is not, there are
not.

-PANGANYA, V. (-pangenye), make.

PANJIPA, adv.y perhaps.

PANONO, adv. J a little.

PANOPANO, adv., here, in this
very place.

PANYUMA, adv., behind. Fa-
nyuma pdkwe^ adv., immedi-
ately afterwards.

-PAPULA, V. {-papwile), tear.

PASA, adv.y outside.

PASi, adv,, on the ground ; prep.^
below.

-PASYA, v. (-pasisye), taste.

PASYETO, adv.y on the other side.

-PATA, V. {-pdtile)j acquire {especi-
ally unexpectedly).

-PATA, V. {-pdtile)j rub, especially
the stomach when drinking beer
(cw a compliment).

PATIPO, conj., since, because.

PAUJO, adv.. in front ; in the
future.

PAUSYO (16), the forehead.

PE-, adv.j when, where (rel.).

-PE (suffix), only, quite.

-PECHESYA, V. (-pechesye), accom-
pany.

PEE, o., silent, still.

-PELA, V. {-pesile), suppose ; be
tired ; be like.

-PELEKA, V. (-peleche), convey.
-PELENGANYA, V, (-pelengcnye), go

further on.
PELEPO, adv., there.
PENANi, adv., above, up alx)ve ;

prep, (pa), alx)ve, over.
-PENDAMA, r. (-pendeme), slant,

heel over.
-PENGA, r. (-penjile), " blow the

nose."
-PEPELA, V. (-pepesele), blow (with

the mouth).
-PEPESYA, V. (-pepesye), inflate.
PESi, adv., on the other side (of

a river, etc.) ; pesi pa (prep.),

across.
-PETA, V. (-petite), sift.
-PI, pron., adj., which ? 'what ?
-PIKANA, V. (-pikene), for -PILI-

KANA.

-PiLiKANA, V. (-pilikene), hear,

understand, obey.
-PILIPITA, V. (-pilipite), wriggle

about, struggle (on the

ground).
-PILIYU, adj., black.
-PIMILILA, V. (-pimilile), endure,

persist, persevere.
-PiNDA, V. (-pindile), bend, fold.
-PiSYA, V. (-pisisye), allow to pass,

put in.
-PITA, V. (-pite), pass, pass along,

go away (neut.) ; pass (come) in.
-PITIKUSYA, V. (-pitikwisye), turn

upside down.
PC, adv., when, where (rel.).
-POCHELA, V, (-pochele), receive.

(Also applied form of -poka,

q.v.).
-POKA, V. (-pochele), enjoy one-
self (as in a dance, wearing "new

clothes, etc.)
-POLA, v. (-posile), be healed ; cool.

(See also -POO LA.)
-POMOLA, V. (-pomwele), husk

(maize, etc.).
-PONDA, V. (-pondile), pound.
-PONYA V. (-ponyile), throw, throw

at or to.

YAO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY

181

-POOLA, V, (-powele), pierce, bore.
-POPELA, V, (^-popele)j pray ; dance

ceremonially.
POSEPE, adv.j everywhere.
-POTA, V, ^-potele), twist threads

into string.
-POTEKA, V. {-poteche), hurt, pain.

(Also -PWETEKA.)

-PUGA, V. {-pujile)j blow (of the
wind).

-PUKUSWA, V. {-pukwisye), be
bored by insects.

-PUKUTA, V. {-pukwite), wipe ; shed
leaves.

-PUKUTULA, V. {-pukutwiU), strip
grain off the maize-cob.

-PUMULA, V. ('ptimwile)j breathe,
rest.

-PUNDA, V. (-pundile)f excel, sur-
pass, exceed. .

-PUNGULA, V, (-pungioile), pour
into another vessel.

-PUTA, V. (-putile)j strike, beat.

-PUTUKULA, v. ('putukwile)y strip
the grain off a maize-cob.

-PWELELA, V, {-pwelele)j be fright-
ened, anxious.

-PWETEKA, V. (-pweteche), see -PO-

TEKA.

-PYA, V, (-pile), be burned ; be

cooked.
-PYAJILA, V. ('pyajile)^ sweep.

S

-SAGAMA, V. (-sageme), go aground
(of boat).

-SAGAMILA, V, ('Sagamile), dream.

-SAGULA, V. (-sagwile), choose,
sort out.

8AI, adv.y thus. *

-SA JIKA, V. (-sajiche\ place on top.

-SAKA, V. (-sachile), wish, want ;
hunt.

-SAKALA, V. (-sakele), be bad.

-SAKALTKA, V. (-scikaliche), l)e
tired, be six>iled.

-SAKAMA, /". (-mkeme), be sus-
pended.

8ALA (9), hunger : Sola ji-
ngwete, I am hungry.

-SALA, V. ('S€tsile), say.

-SALALA, t?. ('Salele)j be nice,
pretty.

-SALASYA, V. (■'salesye)j put aside
for future use.

SALAU (9), red ants.

-SALILA, V, ('Salile), tell.

-SAMA, V, (-samUe), change one's
residence, "move."

SAMBANO, adv. J now : Sambano
^jinOj at once ; ckindu cha
^ samba/nOj a new article.

-SANGALALA, V, (-sangalele) , re-
joice.

-SANGUSA, V, ('Sangwise), shake.

-SAPANGULA, V, (-aapangtoile)^ un-
fold, spread out (e.g. cloth) ;
unravel.

-SAPULA, V, (jsapwile), take part
of anything.

SAPULi (9)y brass (Swah.) ; heiice
bracelets or anklets of brass.

-SAULA, V. (-sawile),w8,Qh (clothes),

-SAUSYA, V. (-saimsye)f punish,
give trouble.

SAi^At^A (9), peas.

-SECHELELA, V. ('Sechelele)^ re-
joice.

-SEJELA, V. ('Sejelele)y move to
one side (neut).

-SEJESYA, t?. (-sejesye)^ move to
one side (c«ua.).

-SEKA, V. ('Sechile)j laugh.

-SEMA, V. (-semile), adze.

-SENYENDA, V. (-senyendile), sift
finely.

-SEPUKA, V. (-8epwiche)ytuYn aside,
leave the path ; (Enphem,) re-
lieve nature ; appl.j avoid.

-siCHiLA, V. (-sichile), be wealthy.

-siOHiTA, V, (-sichite), cut with a
sawing motion, esp. the throat
(of a perso^i), Cf, -SiNGA.

-siGALA, V. (-sigele), remain.

siLiKATi, adv,y the middle.

-SI LI LA, V, (-silile)j fill in (e.y,
a hole).

182

A YAO GRAMMAR

-SIM A, V, (-simile), go out ; put

out {of a lamp or fire).
-SIMANA, r. {'Simene), meet,

find.
-SIMONQWA, i\ (-fnmongwile)j be

puzzled.
-SIMONJEKA, V. (simmijeche), he

puzzling.
-SIMOSYA, V. (-aimodsye), puzzle.
-SINDA, V. ('8indile)f espec.y trim

the nails (ikalawem).
siNDi (9), a gnu (wildebeeste).
-SINDICHISYA, V. {-sindichisye),

put a visitor on his way, " see

off."
-SING A, V. {'8injile)j cut the throat

{of an animal) ; twist- thread.
-SINGALILWA, V, {'Singalilwe), l)e

in trouble ; be at a loss.
siNGANO, (1) {pL, acha-)y a needle.
siNGWA (9\ a pad for the head,

worn wnen carrying a load.
-siSA, V. {'8i8ile)f hide.
-SisiMA, V. ('sisimile^ be cold ;

be insipid,
-sisisi, adj., cold.
-SITA, V. {-siUle)j iron {clothes).
-siTO, adj.y heavy.
-siTOPA, V. {'sitwepe^ be heavy.
-SOGOLA, V, {-sogwele), bear fruit

{chisogosi)^
-SOGOSYA, V. {'Sogwesye), grow

{trans. ) {of a planter).
-SOLA, V. {'Sosile), dig.
-SOMA, V. {'somile), pierce, wound.
SONA (1), tobacco : Kulya, or

hihwemha, sona, to smoke ;

kunusya sona, to take snuff ;

sona juakunusya, snuff.
-SONG AN A, V. {-soiigene), assemble.
-SONGONA, V. {-song we n e),

whisper.
s^Nf, adv. J again.
soNi (9), shame.
-sosA, V. {-sosile)y search for,

want.
-SOWA, V. {'sowile), lack.
-SOYA, V. {-soyiye), do wrong,

make a mistake,

-sCka, V. {'siichile), wash (an

article).
-sCka, v. {'S&chile)j be mean,

stingy.
-SUKUSULA, V. {'suhisyjile), wash

the face.
-SULULA, V, {'sulwile), leak.
-SUMA, V. {-sumile)j buy, sell.
-SUMBA, V. {-8umbUe)y jump.
-SUMISYA, V, {-sumisye), sell.
suNGULA (1) {pi. acha-), a hare.
-SUNGUNUKUKA, V. {-sungunu-

A;t(;ic^e),dissolve ; be thorough-
ly mixed.
-susA, V. {-siisile), hitch up {esp.

of a child on the hack).
-SUSUKWA, V. {'susukwile), be

gluttonous.
-SWA, V. {-Steele), set {of the sun,

etc.).
swALA (9), the roy-buck.
-SWEJELA, 1?. {-swejele), be white,

become white.
-SWEKA, V. {-swechile), insert.
-SWELA, adj., white*
-SYAGA, V. {-syajile), grind {corn).
-SYANA, V. {-sy anile), forge

{metal).
-SYASYA, V. {-syasisye), imitate.
-SYASYAJILA, V. {-syosyajile) ,

smooth off {in pla^siering).
-SYENGA, V. {'Syenjile), coil round.
-SYO^EKANA, V. {-syoibekene), be

intimate.
-SYOWELELA, V. {-syoibelele), be

accustomed to.
-8YUKA, V. {'Syuchile), be changed.
-SYUNGULA, V. {-syungwile), go

round.

T

-TA, V. {'tele), name {the Oh}, Pers.

Pron. is always inserted),
-TAGA, V. {-tasile), pour, place,

apply.
-TAGULILA, V, {-tagulUe), tell.
-TAJILA, V. {-tajUe), lay (eggs).
-TALIKA, V. {-taliche), be far ;

difficult.

TAO-ENGLISH VOCABTJLAEY

183

-TAMA, V, {'temi), sit, stay, dwell.

TAMBALA (1) (pi. OCha-), & COCk.

-TANDA, V, (-tandite)y begin.
-TANDiKA, V, (-tandiche), spread

out.
-TANDILA, V. (-tandile), provoke.
-TANDILILA, V. {-tandiUle)y re-
peat^ do again.
-TANJILA, V, {'tanjile), be caught

(in a trap),
-TAPIKA, V. (-tapiche), vomit.
-TATALA, r. l'tatele)y be blind.
-TATu, three.

-TAUNA, V, {-tawine)f chew.
-TAWA, V. {'taibile), bind, build

(a native house),
-TEGA, V, {'tejile), set (a trap) ;

cock (a gun),
-TEGULA, V. {-■tegwile)y take a pot

off the fire ; take grain out of

the mortar.
-TEKA, V, {'techile), draw (toater).
-TELEKA V. {'teleche), put on the

fire (hence the usual word for

cooking f hrevoing beer, etc)
-TELESYA, V, ('telesye), be slip-
pery.
-TEMA, V. (-temile), cut down

(reedsj etc) ; be sharp.
-TEMANGULA, V. (-temangwile),

break off.
-TEMEKA, V, (-^mec^e), be broken.
-TENDA, V. (-tesile), do.
-TENGANYA, V, (-tengenye)^ shake.
-TEPETA, V. ('tepete)j be " sloppy "

(of porridge f etc) ; adv, n.,

ndepete !
-TETEMELA, »'. (-^etemeie), tremble.
-TEUCHILA, V, ('teuchile)y be late

in starting.
-Ti, V. ('Chitey 'tiji, -tite), say.
-TICHITA, V. I'tichite), rub.
-TICHITILA, V, ('tichitile), dry the

hands.
-TiLA, V, (-tisile), run away.
TILISYA V, (-tilisye), smoothe,

plane.
-TIMBILISYA, V. (-timhilisye),

splice (rope).

-TIMBULA, V, (^'timhwile)y pound

steeped maize.
-TINDANA, V. ('tindene), differ.
-TiNDi^ALA, V, (-tindiibele), kneel.
-TiNiKA, V, ('tiniche)fhe scorched,

burnt.
-TITIMILA, V, ('titimile)y sink.
-TOJiMA (-tojime), be startled,

"jump."
-TOKOTA, V, (-tokwete)y boil.
-TOLA, V. (-tosile), fetch.
-TOMASYA, v,('tomasisye),psA^Atey

test by feeling.
-TON A, V. ('tonile)y pinch.
-TONDOWA, V. (-tondwe'Cbe), be

slack ; become less acute (of

pain),
-TONGOLA, V, (■-tongwele)^ roar (e,g,

lion), crow (cock), etc
-TOPOLA, V, (-topwele), drive

away, .
-TOTA, V, (-totile)y sew.
-TUGALA, V, ('tugele)y walk

quickly.
-TUKANA, V. ('tukene)f swear, use

abusive language.
-TULA, V. (-tv^sHe), put down (a

load) ; alight (of a bird),
-TULUKA, V. (-tulwiche), descend.
-TUMA, V, (-tumile), send (a

person),
-TUMBiLA, V. (-tumhile), be angry,

become angry.
-TUMBULA, V, ('tumhvnle)y gut,

incise.
-TUMISYA, V, (-tumisye), -TUMI-

CHISYA (-tumichisye), send (a

thing),
-TUNDA, V, ('tundile)y micturate.
-TUNDAJILA, V, ('turidajile), limp.
-TUNGA, V, ('tunjile), string

(heads),
-TUPA, V. ('•t'upile)y be many.
-TUTA, V, ('tutile)y push.
TUUPA (1) (pi. achi'), a file.
-TWA, V, ('twele)y pound in a

mortar.
-TWANGA, V, ('twanjile), strike

with the fist ; pound (grain).

184

A TAO OBAMMAB

-TWICHILA, V. (-twichile^ put (a

load) on the head.
-TYOKA, V. {'iyo8ile)f go away,

start.
-TY08YA, V, {'tyosUye), take

away, remove.

U

UCHECHE (14), white ants.

UCHENENB, odv.j well, nicely.

ucHi (14), honey.

UCHILI (14), MACHiLi, Strength,
power.

-UCHILILA, V. {'Uchilile), be
smoked {of food),

ucHiMWENE (I4J, majesty,
royalty ; qualities of a chief.

-UGA, V, I'Uaile), stir (ugali),

-UQALAj V. (-ugele), shut.

UGALI (14), porridge.

UGANJA (14), friendship.

UGONO (14), a reed sleeping-mat.

-UGULA, V. (-ugwile), open (a
door, etc, ; of. -unichila,
-gopola), See mlango.

UGWE, pron,f thou ; one {speak-
ing imper8<ynally).

UGWi! interject, {expresses sur-
prise, exasperation^ etc.),

-UJA, V. {-usile), return.

-UJANGANYA, V. {-ujangenye), go
and return the same day.

-UJILILA, V, {-unlile), turn back.

UKALi (14), fierceness, bravery.

UKANA (14), fermented beer.

UKULU (14), size; greatness {of
time or size) : Kwana ukulu
^kvXa, all this time ; (mwsi)
wana ukulu'ula (a village) as
big as that.

TTKUNGWi (14), skill.

UKUNJE (14), a bow.

IT LA (9), rain. Kunya ul^, to
rain.

-ULAGA, V, {-uleje), kill.

-ULALA, V, {-ulele), be hurt.

ULALO (14), a bridge.

ULAAiRA (14), deceit.

ULAMBi (14), submission, re-
cognition of authority.

ULEMWA (14), sin, fault.

ULENDO {fMt " Yulendo ") (14), a
journey, a caravan.

ULESi (14), laziness.

ULi ? How ? What ? Ahuti uli ?
What does he say ?

-ULiKA, V, {-%Uiche)f burst.

ULiLi (14), a mat made of split
reeds.

ULOMBELA (14), marriage ; a
wedding.

ULONGO (14) {see Appendix IF),

ULUsi (14), thread.

ULU^A (14), a flower.

-UMA, V, (-umile)t come from ;
possess in great degree.

UMANA (14), quarrelsomeness.

-umbXla, V, {-umhele)y pass
through the initiation cere-
monies ; {often tued, hy as-
sociation of ideas, in the more
limited sense of ** he circum-
cised ").

UMBO {pi. of LUUMBO), hair.

UMi (14), life, health.

-UMILA, V. {-umile), come from,
come out of.

UMWE, UMWEJU, proM., you.

UMWEMWE, |?ron., you, yourself.

UNAMi (14), lies, deceit.'

UNANDi (14), smallness : Lib-
wetaHi unandi, This box is too
small.

-UNDA, V. {-undile), teach man-
ners {esp. at unyago),

UNE, UNEJi, pron,, I, me.

UNENE, pro7i., I myself.

-UNGA, V. {-unjile), hoe into a
heap.

UNGO (9), a civet cat.

ung'asi (14), a dance.

-UNICHILA, V, {-unichile), cover,
cover up.

-UNIKA, V, {-uniche), turn (a pot,
etc.) upside down ; cover.

-UNJIKA, V, {-unjiche), gather
into a heap.

YAO-ENGLISH VOCABULARY

185

-UNYA, V, {-^nyile), mix with
water.

UNYAGO (14), the initiation
ceremonies.

UNYOLO (14) (pi. J nyolo)y a chain.

UPAGWE (14), nature, dispo-
sition.

UPANDE (14) (pi, mhande)y the
side of anything ; a yard
(measure),

UPASANi (14), trade.

upiLE (14), good luck.

usANGWALi (14), a (fixed) pole-
bedstead.

USANJE (14), a kind of millet
(" Cyprus grass ").

USAU (14), a platform for drying
meat or fish.

U8AUCHI (14), poverty.

usA^i (14), witchcraft.

usi (14), thread.

usuMA (14), insipidity, lack of
flavour.

USUME (14), price ; trade.

-USYA, V. (-usisye), ask.

-USYA, V, ('Usisye)y give back,
take back.

-UTA, V, (-utile), pull.

-UTALA, V, ('Utele)y be overgrown
(e.g, with grass).

UTALE (14), iron ore.

UTANDi (14), flour.

UTENDE (14), manner, way:
Au lUende^u, like this, in this
manner.

UTi (9), a gun, a rifle.

UTiTiLi (14), a flea, fleas.

UTOPE, MATOPE (^14), mud, clay.

-UTUKA, V, {-utunche), run.

-UTUTA, V. (-utwite), kick.

UTUTU (14V the brain.

-UULA, V. (-uimle), groan.

-nuTA, V. ('uutile)y soften a skin
by rubbing down.

-TIWA, V. (-uwile), die. (The ini-
tial u is often dropped, e.g.
wawile, ''he died^').

U^ARI (14), a muKhi-ooni.

UWE, UWEJI, pron.y we, us.

UWEWE, pron.j we ourselves.

uwiLiLi (14), shade : Mhvnlili,
^in the shade.

uwou (14), maV^ou (6), pus.

-UYA, V. (-uyile)j parboil ; half-
cook in any way (to prevent
the food going bad).

W

-WA, V. ('liji, -'Cbele)f be, become.
-^AJILWA, V. {-'Cbajilwe), be suit-

^able; fit.
-WAKA, V. (-ibachile), build (brick ;

cf. -tawa). (Swah.)
-WALA, V. (-ibasile), shiiie.
-WALA, V. ('Wete\ wear, put on

(clothes),
WALAKWE, pron.y you (polite),

they.
-WALANGA, V, (-{balasile), count,
^ read.

wAli (2), the candidates at the
^boys* or girls* unyago.
-WALULA, V. ('{balwile), split up

(trans.y
WAMBA, adv.y aimlessly ; with-
out plan or reason ; any kind

or description ; " anyhow."
^A MPiNGO, those people ; people

like those.
i^'ANA KAJUMO, of oue family;

th)B children of one man or

woman.
-^ANDICHILA, V. (-{kandichile),
^come near to.
-WANDIKA, V. (-ivandichile), be

near to.
-^ANDIKANYA, V. (-wundikemje),

place near to.
-WANGALA, r. {-wangele), seem ;

resemble.
-WANGANYA, v. (-Ccangenye), mix.
WANGANYAO, pron., they, those

people.
WANI Y pron.j who ?
-WANIC'HISYA, i\ (-ivanichisye),

be doubtful.
Wanya'mwe ! you there !

186

A TAO GBAMMAB

-WASA, V. (-'Cbasile), take out from
a store (e.g, the ngokwe),

-^ATAMA, V. {'ibateme^ be flat,
level.

WATO (14) (pl.f mawato), a canoe.

-^A^A, t?. l-ijbaijbile)j be bitter;
have a burning taste ; singe.

-WECHA, V. ('Wechile)j clothe.

-WECHETA, ^ELEOHETA, V. {'<he-

^chete)j speak.
-WELEKA, V. {''iheleche)y bear or

beget a child ; carry a child

on the back.
WELE WANGANYAO, those people,

people of that kind.
-WELUKA, V. {''Cbelwiche\ stop

wprk : Lyuiha lyakuiheluka,

Saturday.
we'mwanja'wo, that fellow.
WENDA (14), manners, customs.
WENDE (14), wanderings.
-WENGA, V. ('-(benjile), hate.
WEPEWENU, your nephew, etc.

(see Appendix II).
WESANI (14) (pLf mawesani)y

scales.
^ESE (2), father, etc. (see Ap-
pendix II),
-^IKA, V. (-'Cbisile\ place, put.
-WILANGA, V. (-<biladle\ call,

summon.
-wiLi, two.

-wiLiSYA, V, ('wilisye)j repeat.
-WIMBA, V, (-wimbile\ thatch.

-wiNGA, V, ('ibinjile), drive away ;
chase.

wiNJi (14), many, too many ;
much, too much ; amount :
Winji wandu, a large number
of people ; ngongumanyilila
winji wakwej I don't know
how many there are, or^ how
much there is.

wiPi (14), shortness ; short, too
^ short.

-wisi, adj.y fresh, green (not re-
f erring to colour).

-WITUKA, V. ('Witwiche), go off
(of a trap) ; (-ITUKA is more
usual).

wiu (14), jealousy.

WOGA (14), fear.

-i^OLA, V. (-iJbosile), rot.

-WOMBOLA, 1?. (-dombwele), ran-
som, compensate ; propose in
marriage.

-WON A, V. (-went), see.

WONG A (14), gunpowder.

-WULA, V. (-wusile), take off
(clothes).

YAKULYA (9), food.

YALUMO, adv., the same (see

chalumo).
YATi II, such things as this.

ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULARY.

ABLE, BE, V,, -kombola (-ko-

mbwele), -pakombola.
ABOUT {concerning) (prep.)j ya,

sya.
ABOVE, prep.y kwinani, penani ;

On top, pa chanya.
ABUNDANCE, n., winji.
ABUSIVE, BE, t'., -tukana (-tu-

kene).
ACCOMMODATION, n., Huto, malo.
ACCOMPANY, v., -pechesya (-pe-

chesye), -longana na (-longene

na); "«ee o^," -sindichisya

(-smdichisye).
ACCUSE, v., -lagusya (-lagwisve).
ACCUSTOMED, BE, V., -syowelela

(-syowelele).
ACQUAINTED, BE, V., -nianya

(-manye).
ACQUIRE, v., -pitta (-patile).
ACROSS, adv. (a river), pesi ; {over

a hill), pasyeto ; go across (a

river), -jomboka (-jombwe-

che).
ACTIVE, BE, v., -jalukangana

(-jalukangene).
ADD, v., -pambula (-pambwile).
ADVISE, v., -jelusya (-jelwisye).
ADZE, n., chipininjila ; v,, -sema

(-semile).

AFRAID, BE, v., -jogopa (-JO-

gwepe).
AFTERWARDS, adv,, panyuiTia

pakwe ; in the future, ku-

mbujo.
AGAIN, adv., soni ; Do again, v.,

-tandilila (-tandilile), -wilisya

(-wilisye).

AGO, LONG, adv., kala, kalakala ;

recently, katasipe ; some time

ago, katasi.
AGREE, v., (consent), -kunda

(-ku ndile), -j itichisya M i tichi-

sye) ; together, -jilana (-jilene).
AGROUND, GO, v., -sagama (-sa-

geme).
AIMLESSLY, adv., wamba, wa-

mbape.
ALIGHT, V. (come to earth), -tula

(-tusile).
ALIKE, adv., yalumope.
ALL, adj. pron., -ose, -osepe.
ALLOW, v., -kunda (-ku ndile) ; (to

pass), -pisya (-pieisye) ; "Xe<

me look," nimkwe, numkwe.
ALLUVIAL SOIL, w., matimbe

(litimbe).
ALONE, adv., jikft, jikape, pa jika.
ALSO, adv., -akwe (with Class

Char.), nombe, nombe na- ;

(conj.), namuno, namose,

nombe, soni, nipo.
ALTHOUGH, conj., nachi^amuno,

namose, namuno.
ALWAYS, adv., mo^a gosepe.
AMBUSH, v., -ju^ilila (-ju^ilile).
AMOUNT, n., winji.
ANCHOR, COME TO, v., -kochela

(-kochele) ; -kochesya (-ko-

chesye).
AND, conj., ni, na, nipo ; and

then, soni, nipo.
ANGRY, BE, V., -tumbila (-tu-

mbile).
ANIMAL, n, (for food), nyama ;

(wild beast), cnikoko.
ANSWER, V. (reply), -janga (-ja-

njile).

(187)

188

A TAO GRAMMAB

ANT, n. (white), ucheche ; {fly-
ing), nsumbi ; (red), salau ;
(amall bromi), lupamba (pi.,
mbamba).

ANT-HILL, n., lisugulu ; (small),
ehikula.

ANYHOW (at random), adv,, wa-
mbape, balala-balala.

ANYTHING, n., chindu.

ANXIOUS, BE, v., -pwelela (-pwe-
lele).

APART, odi?., pa chisyepela.

APPLY, V. irans., -taga (-tasile),
-^ika (-Visile).

ABE, V, (identity), nde, ni, no ;
(description), -li.

AREA, FLAT (country), n., lilamlx);

UNINHABITED, n., lipululu.

ARGUMENT, n., makani.

ARM, n., mkono ; arm-pit, ku-

ngwapa.
ARRANGE, V. (adjiMt), -linganya

(-lingenye) ; (agree), -langana

(-langene).
ARMY, n., ngondo. Gather to-
gether an — , V,, -lalika (-la-

liche).
ARRIVE, v., -ika (-iehe), -ichila

(-ichile).
AS, conj., mkuti, pakuti ; (as

if), mpela ; (as far as),

mpaka.
ASHAMED, BE, 'V., -teiida soiii

(-tesile).
ASHES, n., liu.
ASHORE, adv., ku mkuli.
ASIDE, adv., pa mbali ; lay aside

for future use, v., -salasya

(-salasisye).
ASK, v», -usya (-usisye).
ASSEMBLE, V. neut, -songana

(-songene).

ASSENT, V. (see AGREE).

ASTHMA, n., mbuuiu.

AT, prep., pa, ku, mu ; at home,

kumangwetu, kuraangwao,

etc.
AUNT, n., amao, atati wakongwe,

etc, {see Appendix II),

AWAIT, V,, -lindilila (-lindilile).
AWAKE, BE, v., -^a mesope (-liji,

-^ele) : — all night, -chesya

(-chesisye).

AWAKE, BE HALF-, V., -gwesela

(-gwesele).
AWAY, GO, v., -tyoka (-tyosile) ;

take — , v., -tyosya (-tyoeisye) ;

run — , v., -tila (-tisile) ; throw

— , v., -jasa (-jj
AXE, n., li^ago.

B

BABOON, ^i., lijani.

BACK, «., mgongo ; turn hack, v.,

-ujilila (-ujilile).
BACKWARDS, odv., cha lugali.
BAD, BE, v., -sakala (-sakele).
BAD, LUCK, n., likungu.
BADGE, n., chimanyililo.
BAG, n., msaku.
BAIT, n., nyambo.
BAMBOO, n., mlasi.
BANANA, n., ligombo ; hunch of — ,

mkonga ; cluster of — , chi-

sagwa.
BANIAN TRADER, n., mmweuye.
BAOBAB, n., mlambe.
BARK (of tree), n., likungwa ; —

rope, mgoji ; — , strip off,

-gwagula (-g wag wile).
BARK {of dog), v., -guma (-gu-

mile).
BARTER, n., malonda ; v., -su-

mana (-sumene).
BASKET, n, (large), Jukalala ;

(7'ound, shallow), chiselo ; (sift-
ing), lupeta.
BAT (small), n., chiputiputi.
BATHE, V. neut., -joga (-josile) ;

V. trans., -jofeya (-josisye).
BE, v., -\va (-liji, -^vele).
BEADS, n., chuma ; string — , v.,

-tunga (-tunjile).
BEAK (of hird), n., lugoino (pi.,

ngomo).
BEAM (wooden), n., ingoniha.
BEANS, n., mbwanda.

BNGLISH-TAO VOCABULABT

189

fiEAR, V. (give hirth)j -^eleka
(-^eleche) ; (fruity -sogola
(-sogwele) : See also carry.

BEARD, n., ndeu.

BEAST, WILD, n., chikoko.

BEAT, V.J -puta (-putile), -menya
(-menyile) ; (excel), -punda
(-pundile).

BEAUTIFUL, odj.y -koto.

BECAUSE, conj.j ligongo, paku^a,

patipo.
BECKON, V.J -kodola (-kodwele),

-palasa (-palasile).
BECOME, V.J -\^a (-liji, -wele).
BEDSTEAD (native)j n.j chi-

ndanda ; — , pole (fixed), usa-

ngwali.
BEE, n.j lujuchi (pi. J nyuchi).
BEER (fermented), n., ukana

(should he used for native beer

only).
BEFORE, adv. J see Grammar, p. 96.
BEG, V.J -juga (-jusile).
BEGET, V.J -^eleka (-^^eleche).
BEGIN, V.J -tanda (-tandite).
BEHIND, adv.j kunyuma, mu-

nyuma ; (prep.)j panyiima

pa (ku, mu).
BELIEVE IN, V.J -kulupilila (-kulu-

pilile).
BELOW, adv. J pasi ; (prep.)j pasi

pa.
BELT, n. - {leather) J mkanda ;

(cloth), mpango.
BEND, V.J -pinda (-pindile).
BENEATH, prep.j pasi pa.
'^ BESEECH YOU, I," chonde.
BETROTHED, w., asono, asonogo.
<* BETTER, I HAD,"nambaya(m</i

suhjunct.).
BETWEEN, prep.j pakati pa ;

(adv.) J pakati.
BEWITCH, V.J -Ic^a (-losile).
BEYOND, prep.j kumbujo ku, ku-

piinda ku.
BIG, adj., -kulungwa ; become — ,

v., -kula (-kusile).
BIND, v., -ta^a (-ta^ile).
BIRD, n.j ehijuni.

BIT, n.j chipisya.
BITE, V.J -luma (-luraile).
BITTER, BE, V., -^a^a (-^a^ile).
BLACK, adj., -piliyu ; — dye, n.,

-jina (-jinile).
BLESS, v., -jinichila (-jinichile).
BLIND, BE, v,j -tatala (-tatele).
BLISTER, n.j iituku, litusa.
BLOOD, n.j myasi (4).
BLOW, V. (of wind) J -puga (-pu-

jile) ; (with mouth) j -pepela

(-pepesile) ; (inflate), -pepesya

(-pepesye).
BOAST, 1?., -likwesya (-likwesi-

sye).
BODY, n., chilu.
BOIL, v., -tokota (-tokwete).
BONE, n.j liupa.
BOOK, n.j buku, chibuku, libuku

(Engl.).
BORE, v. J -poola (-powele) ; be

bored by insects, -pukuswa

(-pukwisye) ; be bored (tired)j

-isya ulesi (-isisye).
BORN, BE, V.J -pagwa (-pagwile,

-pali).
BORROW, V. (Jtemporarily), -ja-

sima (-jasime, -jasimile) ;

(for some time), -kongola (-ko-

ngwele).

BOTTLE, n.j lisolOBOlo.

BOUNDARY, n., malile, mpika.

BOW (weapon)j n., ukunje.

BOX, n.j libweta.

BRACELET, n. (brass) j chikungu,
sapuli (Swah.); (ivory), likosa.

BRAIN, n., ututu.

BRANCH, n., luambi (^jZ., nyambi).

BRASS, .n., chikungu, sapuli
(Swah.).

BRAVERY, n.j ukali.

BREAK, V. neut., -temeka (-te-
meche) ; trans, (in pieces),
-kasa (-kasile) ; — off, -te-
mangula (-temangwile).

BREASTS, n., raa^ele.

BREATHE, V., -pUinula (-pU-

mwile).
BRIBE, n., mbote ja chile.

190

A YAO GBAMMAB

BRICK, n., njelwa.

BRIDGE, n.j ulalo.

BRING, v., -tola (-toeile), -jigala

(-jigele), -ika ni (-iehe ni) ;

— hackf -uja ni (-usile ni),

-uchisya (-vichisye).
BRINK, n., njengwe.
BROKEN, BE, t?., -temeka (-te-

meche), -kasika (-kasiehe),

-temanguka (-temangwiche).
BRONCHITIS, n., liundika.
BROOM, n,j liBache.
BROTHER, eldeVf akulii, achim-

wene ; younger j mpwanga,

mpwao, etc, ; brother-in-law,

alamu {see Appendix II),
BUFFALO, n., njati.
BUGLE, n., lipenga.
BUILD, V, {a native hxit)^ -tawa

(-ta^ile) ; (brick), -^aka (-wa-

fhile), (Swah.).
BULLET, n., chiix)lopolo.
BUNDLE, n., mtambala.
BURN, 1?. trans,, -jocha (-jo-

chele) ; neut, -pya (-pile) ;

scorch, -vichilila (-uehilile) ;

burnt, be {of food), r,, -tinika

(-tiniche).
BURST, V,, trans,, -jiapula (-j)a-

pwile) ; {explode), -ulika

(-uliche).
BURY, v., -jasa (-jasile).
BUSH, THE, n., litinji, likonde.
BUSH-BUCK, n., mba^ala.
BUT, conj,, nambo, aka^e.
BUTTERFLY, n., chipuluputwa.
BUY, V,, -suma (-sumile).

CAGE, n., chijumba.

CALICO, n,, malekano; n^uo.

CALL, V. (summon), -wilanga

(-^ilasile) ; (name), -ta (-tele) ;

(call on by name), -kolanga

(-kolasile).
CALM, n,, bata.
OAMP, n., chigono ; (first, on a

joiirney), lulao.

CAKE, SUGAR-, n,, mlungu.

CANOE, n., wato.

CAP, n,, chisoti.

CARAVAN, w., ulendo ; ^a ni'ii-
lendo.

CARE FOR, V,, -kosya (-kopisye).

CAREFULLY, adv., 'chenene ;
m]x)Iembole.

CARRY, v., -jigala (-jigele) ; carry
on the back, -^eleka(-^eleche).

CARTRIDGE, n., chilasl.

CASE-AT-LAW, 71., magambo ; de-
cide a — , v., -lamula (-la-
mwile).

CASSAVA, n,, chinangwa.

CAT, n., chome ; (wild), eh lulu ;
(civet), ungo; (gen,et), mbe-
ndii.

CATARRH, n., liundika.

CATCH, v., -kamula (-kamvvile).

CATTLE, n., ng'ombe. Cattle-
kraal, liohinga.

CAUGHT IN TRAP, BE, V., -tanjila
(-tanjile).

CAVE, n., mbanga.

CAVITY, n,, mbugii.

CEASE, v., -leka (-lesile) ; —
work, -^eluka (-welwiche).

CENTRE, IN THE, adv., pa cliili-
kati, pa silikati.

CEREMONIES, INITIATION, n.,

vinyago ; pass through — , v.,
-inigwa (-inigwe), -urabala
(-umbel e) ; — womenh, liti^o ;
— boy*s, lupanda; — girVs,
chiputu ; — candidfite at,
rawali.

CHAIN, n., unyolo.

CHAMELEON, n,, nalwii.

CHANGE, V. trans., -tindanya
(-tindenye) ; — one^s abode,
-sama (-samile) ; (he changed),
V,, -syuka (-synch ile).

CHARCOAL, n., makala.

CHASE, v., -^inga (-^injile).

CHAT, V,, -kunguluka (-kungu-
Iwiche).

CHEAT, V,, -nyenga (-nyenjile),
-lambusya (-lambwisye).

ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULARY

191

CHEERFUL, V., -kondwa (-ko-

ndwile).
CHEST, n,j pamtima.
CHEW, v.y -tauna (-tawine).
CHIEF, v., mwenye, mchi-

mwene ; — qualities of, uehi-

mwene.
CHILD, n., mwanache ; hear or

beget — , v., .^eleka(-^eleche) ;

children of the same parents^

^ana kajumo.
CHINK, n., chipo^o, lipesa.
CHOOSE, 1?., -sagula (-sagwile).
CIGARETTE, n., kanundu.
CIRCUMCISED, BE, V., -umbala

(-umbele).
CIVET-CAT, n., ungo.
CLAN, n.f lukosyo, liwele.
CLEAR (the hush)j V.J -chochola

(-chochwele) ; — up (tidy),

-linganya (-lingenye); — up

(after rain), -cha (-chele).
CLEVER MAN, juana lunda.
CLIMB, v,j -kwela (-kwesile).
CLOTH, n., nguo.
CLOTHES, n., nguo (pL) ; clothe,

v., -wecha (-wecnile) ; wear

clothes, -wala (-wete) ; wash — ,

-chapa (-chapile), -saula (-sa-

wile) ; iron — , -sita (-sitile) ;

take off — , -wula (-wusile).
CLOUD, n., liunde.
COAST, THE SEA, H., mbwani.
COAT, n., jaketi (Engl), koti

(Engl).
COB, MAIZE, n., chisonde ; strip

off seed from — , v., -putukula

(-putukwile).
COBRA, n., lite^o.
COCK, n., tambala ; — a gun, v.,

-tega (-tesile).
COCKROACHES, n., mbeu.
COIL ROUND, v., -syenga (-sye-

njile).
COLD, n., mbepo ; — , adj., -sisisi ;

he — , v., -sisima (-sisimile) ;

hecome — , -pola (-posile) ; a

cold, liundika.
COLLECT, V. (see gather).

COMB, n., lisamvilo.

come, v., -ika (-iche), -jisa (-ji-

sile) ; — hack, -uja (-usile) ;

— from, -umila(-uraile) ; — in,

-pita (.pile) ; " , Ma^j I? "

ieho, hodi (Swah.) ; " — m,"

apite, hodini (Swah.) ; — near,

-wandichila (-wandiehile) ; —

on ! Kwende ! ; — out, -kopoka

(-kopweche).
commence, v., -tanda (-tandite).
commission (to huy), give a, v.,

-lajisya (-lajisye).
companion, n., mjaiigu (my),

mjakwe (his), etc.
compensate, v., -wombola

(-wombwele).
complain, v., -dandaula (danda-

wile).
compound (place), n., kunganya.
conceal, v., -sisa (-sisile).
CONCEITED, BE, V., -Hkwesya

(-likwesisye), -liwona uleu

msingu (-liweni).
CONCERNING, prep., ya, sya,

mkuti.
CONFUSION, IN, a(it>.,balala-balala.
CONJOINED, BE, v., -lumbikana

(-lumbikene).
CONSENT, v., -jitichisya (-jiti-

chisye), -kunda (-kundile).
CONSIDER, v., -ganisya (-gani-

sisye).
CONUNDRUM, n., nda<W.
CONVERSE, v., -kunguluka (-ku-

ngulwiche).
CONVEY, o.y -peleka (-peleehe) ;

— a messa>ge, -lungusya

(-lungwisye).
COOK, v., -teleka (-teleche) ; he

cooked, -pya (-pile); — half-,

-uya (-uyile).
COOL, V. neut., -pola (-posile) ; he

—, -sisima (-sisimile).
COOP, hen-, n., chitundu.
COPULATION, n., chikululu.
CORK, n., chisiwilo.
CORNER (of a house, etc.), n.,

lutumba.

192

A YAO GBAMMAK

CORPSE, n., mtembo, chitanda.
COST, n., usume, mtengo ; cogtly,

-a mtengo.
COTE, PIGEON-, n., chitundu.
COTTON, n., litonje ; thread,

usi.
COUGH, V.J -kosomola (-koso-

mwele) ; a cough, liundika.
COUNT, v., -^alanga (-^alasile).
COUNTRY, n., chilamlx) ; open

flat — , lilamlx) ; uninhabited

— , lipululu.
COURT- YARD, n., pa nganya.
COUSIN, n. {see Appetidix II).
COVER, v., -unichila (-unichile) ;

a cover, n.,. liuniko, chiiini-

chilo.
COW, n.j ng'ombe jamkolo ; cow^s

milk, mkaka.
CRAB, n., ngala ; — -, catch, v.,

-kopa (-kopele).
CRACK, 71., lugwa.
CRATE (for carrying fowls, etc.),

n., chiteletele.
CRAWL, v., -kwa^a (-kwa^ile).
CROCODILE, n., ngwena.
CROSS {a mver), v., -jomboka
* (-jombweche).
CROSS-WISE, adv., chamchitipa.
CROW (cock), v., -torigola (-to-

ngwele).
CRY, V, (weep), -lila (-lisile) ;

— (shout), -gumila (-gumi-

sile).

CUBIT, n.

kono).

CUNNING, BE, V.

(-kalamwiche).

CUP (gourd), n., mgao.

CURDLE, v., -kwe^a (-kwe^ile).

CURE, v., -posya (-posisye).

CUSHION, n., msamilo.

CUSTOMS, n., wenda, mitengo.

CUT, v., -kata (-katile) ; — down,
-tema (-temile) ; — open,
-tumbula (-tumbwile) ; —
throat, -singa (-sinjile) ; — up,
-ga^a (-ga"^ile) ; — with saw-
ing motion, -sichita (-sichite).

, mkono (pL, ma-
-kalamuka

D

DAMP, BE, v., -nyo^a (-nyo^ile) ;
— , n., chieisila.

DANCE, V,, -ina (-inile) ; — , n.,
ung'asi ; — ceremonially, v.,
-popela (-popele).

DARKNESS, n., chipi.

DAUGHTER, n. (see Appendix IT).

DAWN, 1?., -cha (-chele) ; before
— , adv., kumasikusiku ; at — ,
adv., kulimbuwu.

i:)AY, n., lyw^SL ; tims, musi ;

— before yesterday, lijusi ; yes-
terday ^ liso ; to-day, lelo ; to-
morroWy mala^i ; the day after
to-morrow, mtondo ; two days
after to-morrow, mkucha.

DEAD, BE, 1?., -jasika (-jasiche) ;
die, -uwa (-uwile).

DEBT, n., ngongole.

DECEIT, n., unami, ulamba.

DECEIVE, v., -nyenga (-nyenjile) ;
be deceitful, -lambusya (-la-
mbwisye).

DECIDE A CASE, V. -lamula (-la-
mwile).

DEEP, BE, v., -kwendesya.

DEFAECATE, V., -Dya (-nyelc).

DELAY, v., -ka^a (-ka^ile), -ko-
ko^a (-kokwe^e).

DELIVER (a m^essage), n., -lu-
ngusya (-lungwisyej.

DENY, v., -kftna (-ka,nile) ; -jima
(-jimi).

DERISION, n., ehanSche, chi-
pongwe.

DESCEND, v., -tuluka (-tulwiche).

DESERT, n., lipululu.

DESTROY, v., -jonanga (-jona-

sile).
DIE, v., -uwa (-uwile), -jasika

(-jasiche) ; a mourning, malilo.
DIFFER, v., -tindana (-tindene),

-lekana (-lekene).
DIFFICULT, adj., -nonono ; be -r,

V,, -nonopa(-nomwepe), -talika

(-taliche).
DIG, v., -sola (-sosile).

ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULABY

193

DIP (esp., food into the " relish "),

1?., -pamba (-pambile).
DISAPPEAR, v,j -gwala (-gwasile).
DISEASE, n., chilwele.
DISPENSE (medicine), v,, -jenjela

(-jenjele).
DISPOSITION (nature), w., upagwe.
DISPUTE, n.j makani.
DISRESPECTFUL, BE, 17., -jalusya

(-jalwisye).
DISTANT, BE, V., -talika (-taliche).
DISTRICT, w., chilambo.
DIVIDE, v., -ga^anya (-gaL^enye).
DO, 1?., -tenda (-tesile).
DOG, n., mbwa; — , wild, n.,

lisogo.
DOOR, n., litanga; doorway, pa

mlango.
DOUBTFUL, BE, V,, -wanichisya

(-wanichisyef).
DOVE, n,, nju^a.
DOWN, adv., pasi ; — stream,

kwi^anda.
DRAG-NET, n., likoka.
DRAIN, v., -lagala (-Jagele) ; — ,

n., lukoloma.
DRAKE, n., li^ata (lyamka-

mbako).
DRAW, V. (pull), -uta (-utile) ; —

(water), -teka (-techile) ; —

(write), -lemba (-lembile).
DREAM, v., -sagamila(-8agamile).
DRINK, v., -ng'wa (-ng'wele^
DRIVE AWAY, 17., -^inga (-^i-

njile), -tisya (-tisisye), -topola

(-topwele).
DRUM, n., ngoma ; heat a — ,

-gomba (-gombile).
DRUNK, BE, 17., -kolelwa (-kole-

Iwe).
DRY, adj., -juma; — season, n.,

chau; be — , v., -jumula (-ju-

mwile); — up, »., -jumilila

(-jumilile) ; — partially, v.,

-lagala (-lagele) ; spread out to

— , V,, -janika (-janiche) ; —

(the hands), v., -tichitila (-ti-

chitile) ; — at a fire, v,, -ja-

tusya (-jatwisye).

DUCK, n., li^ata (lyamkolo).
DUIKER, n., ngolombwe.
DUST, n,, luundu.
DWELL, 17., -tama (-temi) ; woi7e

somewhere else to — , -sama

(-samile).
DYE, 17. (black), -jina (-jinile);

— (red), -chesula (-cheswile).

E

EACH, pron.-adj., -ana -ose,
-osepe.

EAR, n., lipikanilo.

EARLY (in the morning), adv.,
kunda^W, kunda^ipe ; before
dawn, kumasikusiku ; start
early in the moiming, v., -la^a
(-labile).

EARNEST, IN, adv., kwene.

EARTH (soil), litaka.

EARTHENWARE POT, n., chi^iga.

EAT, 1?., -lya (-lile).

EGG, n., lindanda, litaji ; — lay,

v., -tajila (-tajile).
EITHER . . . OR, conji, kanga

. ; . kanga; pane . . . pane.
ELAND, n., mbunju.

ELDER BROTHER, n., akulu,

achimwene (see Appendix IT).
ELEPHANT, n., ndembo.
ELSEWHERE, adv., kwine.
EMERGE, i7.,-kopoka(-kopweche).
END, 17., -mala (-masile) ; the end,

adv., pa mbesi ; the tip, mtepa.
ENDURE, 17., -pimilila (-pimilile).
ENOUGH, BE, V., -jenanila (-jena-

nile) ; have —, v., -jikuta

(-jikwite).
ENTER, 17., -jinjila (-jinjile).
ESCAPE, 17., -kulupuka (-kulu-

pwiche).
EUROPEAN, n., msungu.
EVEN, adv., namuno, namose ;

even if, conj., nachi^amuno.
EVENING, n., ligulo ; this — ,

ligulo'lino.
EVERY, pron. adj., -osepe ; every

one, -ana -ose, -osepe.

13

194

A YAO GBAMMAB

EVERYWHERE, adu., posepe.
EXCEED, v., -punda (-pundile).
EXCEL, v,f -punda (-pundile).
EXCEPT, conj, and prep., aka^e,

nambo.
EXCHANGE, «., -tindanya (-ti-

ndenye); barter, v., -sumana

(-sumene).
EXPLAIN, t?., -gopolela (-gopo-

lele).
EXTINGUISH, v., -sima (-simile).
EXTREMELY, adv., kwamuope,

kusyesyene.
EYE, n., liso (meso) ; — lid, n,,

chikolof^a.

F

PAIL, «., -lepela (-lepele).

FALL, v., -gwa (-gwile) ; (of rain),

-nya (-nyele).
FALSE, adj., -nami.
FAMILY, OF ONE, ^ana kaiumo.
FAR, BE, v., -talika (-taliche) ;

adv., kwakutalika, kwanaula ;

as far as, mpaka.
FAREWELL, BID, V., -langa (-la-

njile).
FAST, adv., chitema; go — , v.,

-chelenga (-chelesile).

FASTEN TOGETHER, V., lumbi-

kanya (lumbikenye).

FAT, BE, v., -jimbala*(-jimbele).

FATHER, n., atati, ^ese {see Ap-
pendix IT).

FATHOM, n., mkwamba.

FAULT, n., ulemwa.

FEAR, n., woga; v., -jogopa
(-jogwepe).

FEATHERS, n., mang'omba.

FEEL (with fingers), v., -tomasya
(-tomasisye).

FELL, v., -kanga (-kanjile).

FELLOW, ITS, mjakwe ; that fel-
low, we m wan j a' wo.

FEMALE, adj. (person), -kongwe ;
(animal), -mkolo.

FENCE, n., lutenje ; — (round a
house), n., chimbundi.

FERTILE, adv. n., ehajila.
FESTIVAL, n., chaka.
FETCH, v., -tola (-tosile).
FEW, BE, v., -nandupa (-na-
ndwipe).

FIERCENESS, H., ukall.

FIG, n., lukuju.

FIGHT, v., -menyana (-menyene).

FILE, n., tuupa.

FILL, v., -gumbasya (-gumbesye) ;
fill in, -silila (-silile).

FIND, v., -simana (-simene),
-wona (-weni).

FINE, n., maehila.

FINISH, V. neut, -mala (-masile) ;
trans., -malisya (-malisisye),
-mala.

FINGER, n., chala ; little — , chala
cha nyonje ; middle — , c. cha
chilikati; fore — , c. cha ku-
lanjila ; thumb, c. cha chi-
kongo ; — nail, chikalawesa.

FIRE, n., moto ; — a gun, v.,
-gomba (-gombile); warm
oneself at the — , -lijota (-lijo-
tile) ; extinguish a — , v.,
-sima (-simile) ; kindle a — ,
v., -kolesya (-kolesisye) ; take
off the — (e.g. a pot), v., -tegula
(-tegwile) ; maJce up the — , v.,
-kwisila (-kwisile) ; take out
of — , v., -jokola (-jokwele) ;
— f d^y at, v., -jatusya (-ja-
twisye) ; fireplace, n., chisisa ;
fire stones, n., maiga ; firewood,
n., ngwi, saso.

FIREFLY, n., chinyetanyeta.

FIRM (stiff), BE, v., -kwindimala
(-kwindimele).

FIRST, adj., -atanda, -akutanda ;
in the first pla^e, pandanda.

FISH, n., somba ; — -poison,
mtutu ; — -eagle, ngwasi ;

hook, chisopo ; scale, n.,

li^amba.

FITTING, BE, V., -^ajilwa
(-^ajilwe).

FIVE, num., msano.

PLAT, BE, v, -^atama (-^ateme).

ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULARY

195

FLAVOUR, LACK OF, n., usuma.
FLAY (skin) 1?., -gwagula (-gwa-

gwile).
FLEAS, w., utitili.
FLEE, v,j -tila (-tisile).
FLESH, n., mnou.
FLOOD, n., chikumba.
FLOUR, n,y utandi.
FLOWER, n., ulu^a.
FLY, n., lumembe ; gad-fly,

ligu^o ; V.J -guluka(-gulwiche).
FOLD, V.J -pinda (-pindile).
FOLLOW, V.J -kagula (-kagwile) ;

pur sue J kuya (-kuyiye).
FOOD, n. chakulya, yakulya ;

— left over after meal, ma-
kombo ; — he burnt, v.,
-tinika (-tiniche) ; — he
smoked, v., -uchilila(-uchilile) ;

— (for journey), n., inga.
FOOL, ri., mjinga.

FOOLISH, BE, v., -lo\^ela (-lo^ele).
FOOLISHLY, adv., wambape.
•FOOT, n., lukongolo ; foot-print,

likau, likumbo.
FOR, prep., -a, kwa.
FORD, n., chiko.

FOREHEAD, paUSyO.

FORGE, n., chipala; — (metal),

v., -syana (-syanile).
FORGET, v., -li^alila (-li^alile).
FORGIVE, v., -kululuchila (-kulu-

luchile), -lechelela (-lechelele).
FORKED STICK, w., lipanda.
FORMERLY, adv., kala.
FOUR, num., mcheche.
FOWL, n., nguku ; crate for — ,

chiteletele.
FRAGMENT, n., chipisya.
FRESH, adj., -^isi.
FRIEND, n., ambusanga.
FRIENDLY, BE, V., -syo^^ckana

(-syotvekene).
FRIENDSHIP, n., uga'nja.
FRIGHTEN, V., -jogoya ("jogweye) ;

frightened, he, -jogopa (-jo-

gwepe), -pwelela (-pwelele).

FRIGHTFUL, BE, V., -jOgOya

(-jogweye).

FROG, n.j chiula.

FROM, prep. J ku, kwa.

FRONT, IN, adv., kumbujo ; go — ,

17., -longolela (-longolele).
FROTH, n., chiulo.
FRUIT, n., chisogosi ; hear — , v.,

-sogola (-sogwele).
FRY, v., -kalanga (-kalasile) ;

frying-pan, chiwaya.
FULL, BE, v., -gumbala (-gu-

mbele).

FULL-GROWN, BE, V., -kula

(-kusile), -komangala (-k o-

mangele).
FUTILE, oAj., -mtega.
FUTURE, IN THE, adv., kumbujo.

G

GAD-FLY, n., ligU^O.

GAME (puck), n., nyama ; play a
game, v., -ng'anda (-ng'andile).

GAPE, v., -jasama (-j a s e m e) ;
yawn, -jasama mwaju.

GARDEN, n., mgunda ; stream-
garden, ku matimbe.

GATHER (pluck), v., -kS^a (-ka-
^ile) ; — i7ito heaps, v., -unjika
(-unjiche); (assemhle), -songa-
na (-songene).

GENET-CAT, n., mbendu.

GENTLY, adv., mbolembole.

GESTURE, SUMMON BY A, V.,

-kodola (-kodwele).

GET, V.J -pata (-patile) ; (possess),
-kola (-kwete) ; (fetch), -tola
(-tosile) ; get up, -jimuka
(-jimwiche), -jima (-jimi).

GIRL, n., mwali.

GIVE, v., -pa (-pele), -peleka
(-peleche); — hack, -uchisya
(-uchisye) ; — a present,
-lagusya ('-lagwisye).

GLAD, BE, v., -kondwa (-ko-
ndwele), -sechelela (-seche-
lele), -sangalala (-sangalele).

GLASS, LOOKING-, n., kalilole.

GLUTTONOUS, BE, V., -SUSUkwa

(-Busukwile).

196

A TAO GRAMMAR

GO, v., -ja Mile), -jaula (-jawile),
-jenda (-jesile) ; — out, -ko-
poka (-kopweche) ; — withy
-longana na (-longene na) ;

— further on, -pelenganya
^-pelengenye) ; — away, -tyoka
(-tyoBile), -pita (-pite) ; —
round, -syungula (-syungwile);

— beyond, -punda (-pundile) ;

— q^ {trap), -ituka (-itwi-
che) ; — out (of fire), -si ma
^simile) ; — fast, -chelenga
(-chelesile).

GOAT, n., mbusi.

GOD, n., mulungu.

GOING, adv. n., mwanja.

GOOD, adj., -mbone ; be good, v.,

-lumbana (-lumbene).
GOOD-BYE, asigaleje, ajendeje :

say — , v., -langa (-lanjile).
GOOD-LUCK, n., upile.
GOODS, w., chipanje.
GOSSIP, n., chikamwa-kamwa.
GOURD (cup), n., mgao.
GNU, n., sindi.
GRAIN, POUND, V., -twa.'<-twele),

-twanga (-twanjile) ; grind,

-syaga (-syajile).
GRAIN-STORE, n., ngokwe ; take

grain out of — , v., -tegula

(-tegwile).

GRANDCHILD, n., chisukulu.

GRANDFATHER, n., ambuje (see

Appendix it).
GRASP, v., -kamula (-kamwile).
GRASS, n., manyasi ; — , small

bundles of (for thatching),

mbutu.
GRASSHOPPER, n., cliitete.
GRATUITOUSLY, adv., lulele.
GRAVY, n., msusi.
GREATNESS, n., ukulu, uchi-

mwene.
GREEN (fr e s h), a dj., -^^ i 8 i ;

{colour), -a chisamba.
GREET, 1?., -komasya (-koma-

sisye).
GRIND, v., -syaga (-syajile).
GROAN, V,, -uula (-uusile).

GROUND, ON THE, odv., pasl f

— , roll {in saluJte), v., -galagata

(-galagatile).
GROW (of plants), v., -me la

(-mesile) ; v. trans., -sogosya

(-sogwesye) ; — big, -k u I a

(-kusile), -komangala (-ko-

mangele).
GRUMBLE, v., -dandaula (-danda-

wile).
GUIDE, v., -longolela (-longolele) ;

n., mlongola.
GUINEA-FOWL, w., nganga.
GUN, n., uti ; fire a — , v., -gomba

(-gombile) ; cock a — , -tega

(-tesile) ; gun-powder, n.,

wonga.
GUT, v., -tumbula j(-tumbwile) ;

the gut, n., matumbo.

H

HAFT, n., mpini.

HAIL, n., m^talila.

HAIR, n., luumbo, umbo ; — of

ani^nals, mang'omba.
HALF {approximate), n., litika.
HAMMER, n., nyundo ; v., -koma

(-komile), -komela (-ko-

mele).
HAND, n., mkono ; — , in the,

muyala ; palm of — , ligasa.
HANDLE, n., mpini ; tap {hoe,

axe) out of — , v., -ku^la

(-kusile).
HANG UP, v., -koleka (-koleche).
HAPPEN, V,, -gwa (-gwile),

-woneka (-woneche).
HAPPY, BE, v., -kondwa (-ko-

ndwele).
HARD, adj., -nonono ; be hard, v.,

-limba (-limbile), -kwindi-

mala(-kwindimele); {difficult)

-nonopa (-Yiomwepe), -sausya

(-sausisye).
HARE, n., sungula.

HARTEBEESTE, n., ngOSe.

HARVEST SEASON, n., masika.
HASTE {see hurry).

ENGLISH-TAO VOCABULABY

197

HASTEN, v,j -kulumisya (-kulu-

misye).
HAT, n., chipewa.
HATE, V.J -tvenga (-^enjile).
HAVE, v., -kola (-kwete) ; having,

-ana ; not having, -angali.
HE, pron., ajo, juelejo, jualakwe.
HEAD, w., mtwe ; — , put on the,

v., -twichila (-twichile).
HEADMAN, w., asyene musi.
HEAL, V. neut, -pola (-posile).
HEALTH, n., umi ; — , he in good,

v., -jimukaga (-jimwicheje).
HEAP, n., chikwekwe, lituto ;

— together, v,, -unga (-unjile),

-unjika (-unjiche).
HEAR, V,, -pilikana (-pilikene),

-pikana (-pikene).
HEART, n., mtima.
HEAT, n., chitukuta, mtukuta,

moto ; reheat, v., -k 6 s y a

(-kosisye).
HEAVY, adj,, -sito ; be heavy, v,,

-sitopa (-sitwepe).
HEEL, n., chindende ; — over,

v,, -pendama (-pendeme).
HEIGHT, n., msingu.
HELP, v., -kamusya (-kamwisye),

-kamuchisya (-kamuchisye).
HEN, n., nguku ; hen-house,

chitundu.
HERD, v., -chinga (-chinjile),

-langa (-lanjile).
HERE, adv,, akuno, apano,

amuno ; — and there, pakwe

pakwe.
HESITATE, v., -dodoma (-dodwe-

me).
HIDE, v., -sisa (-sisilo), -ju^a

(-ju^^ile), -gwala (-gwasile) ; —

{skin), n., lipende ; prepare — ,

v., -uuta (-uutile).
HIGH, adj,, -leu ; he — , v., -talika

(-taliche).
HILL, n., litumbi.
HIPPOPOTAMUS, n., ndomondo.
HIRE, n., mbote.
HIS, pron,, -akwe, -gwe.
HITCH UP, v., -susa (-susile).

HOE, n., 1 i j e 1 a ; v., -lima
(-limile) ; clear the bush, v.,
-chochola (-chochwele) ; hoe
down weeds, v., -lima luwila ;
hoe into heaps, v., -unga
(-unjile).

HOLD, TAKE, V,, -kamula (-ka-
mwile).

HOLE, n. {in ground), lisimbo ;
{in cloth), chipo^^o ; {in wall,
fence), chimbeleta ; {in tree),
mbugu ; {cave), mbanga ; rat-
hole, miinjilo ; hook out of
hole, v., -kopa (-kopele).

HOME, adv,, kumangwetu, ku-
mangwenu, kumangwakwe,
kumangwao ; change one^s
home, v., -sama (-samile).

HONEY, n., uehi.

HONOUR, 71., ehijinichilo ; v,,
-ehimbichisya (-chimbi-
chisye).

HOOK, FISH-, n,, chisopo ; hook
out of hole, v», -kopd; (-kopele).

HOOP, n,, chitungulu.

HORN, n., msengo.

HORNET {var, of) litendeu,
namlondola.

HOSPITAL, n., (chisako).

HOT, adj., -ana moto, -a moto ;
— season, n., chau.

HOUSE, n., nyumba ; gable-ended
— , libanda ; rectangular — ,
without gables, likome ; wall
of — -, lipupa ; fence round — ,
chimbundi ; partition in — ,
lusasa ; corner of — , lutumba;
verandah, lipenu ; verandah-
room, lukole ; build — {of brick),
-^aka (-^achile) {Swahili) ;
build — {native fashion), -ta^a
(-ta^ile) ; at whose — ? Kwa
cheni ?

HOW ? adv., uli ? How many ?
-lingwa. How do you do?
Ana mkwimukaga ?

HUNDRED, n., lichila.

HUNGER, n., sala.

HUNTING-GROUND, n., kumikull.

198

A TAO GBAMMAB

HURRY, t;., -kangamala (-kanga-

mele), -janguya (-langwiye),

-chelenga (-chelesile) ; trans,

(see hasten).
HURT, v., -poteka (-poteche),

-pweteka (-pweteche) ; be hurtj

v., -ulala (-ulelo).
HUSBAND, n., asono, rasonogo.
HUSK, V.J -pomola (-pomwele) ;

husks, n., mascte ; husked

maize, msokolo.
HY^NA, n., litunu.

I, pron., une, uneji ; I myself,

unene.
IP, conj., naga, na^a, na ; as if,

mpela.
ILL, BE, v., -Iwala (-Iwasile) ;

illness, n,, chilwele.
IMITATE, v., -syasya (-syasisye).
IMPUDENCE, w., chipongwe, chalu.
IN, prep., mu, m* ; insomuch as,

pakuti, mkuti.
INCREASE {a quantity), v., -jo-

njechesya (-jonjechesye).
INDEED ? Eti ; — ! chisimu !

INFECT, BE INFECTIOUS, V., ja-

mbuchila (-jambuchile).
INFLATE, v., -pepesya (-pepesye).

INITIATION CEREMONIES, n.,

unyago ; pass through — , v.,
-umbala (-umbole), -inigwa
(-inigwe), (see also cere-
monies).

INSERT, v., -sweka (-swechile),
-jinjisya (-jinjisye), -pisya
(-pisisye).

INSIDE, adv., mkati.

INSIPID, BE, v., -sisima
(-sisimile).

INSIPIDITY, n., usuma.

INSOLENCE, n., chalu, chipongwe.

INSOLENT, BE, V., -jalusya (-ja-
Iwisye),

INSULT, v., -jalusya (-jalwisye).

INTENTIONALLY, adv., melc,
melope.

INTERFERE, V., -chenjechesya
(-chenjechesye).

INTIMATE, BE, V., -syo^ekaDA
(-syo^ekene).

INVOKE, v., -kolanga (-kolasile).

IRON, n., chisyano ; iron (clothes),

v., -sita (-sitile) ; ore, «.,

utale.

IS, -li (descriptive) ; no, ni (de-
noting identity).

ISLAND, n., chilumba.

ITCH, v., -nyanya (-nyanyile).

IVORY, n. ndembo.

JEALOUSY, n., wiu.
JlQGER(8arcopsylla penetrans), n.,

litekonya.
JOURNEY, n., ulendo ; — , food

for, inga.
JUDGE (a case), v., -lamula (-la-

mwile).
JUMP, v., -sumba (-sumbile) ;

(be startled), -tojima (-tojime).
JUST — (merely), (see Qramnmr,

page 89.
JUST, BE, v., -golosya (-golwesye).

K

KEEP, v., -tama na (-temi na),
-kamula (-kamwile) ; — tame
animals, -langa (-lanjile).

KICK, v., -ututa (-ututile).

KIDNEY, n., lupyo.

KILL, v., -ulaga, (-uleje).

KIND, n., lukosyo, mtindi ; dif-
ferent hinds, ngosyongosyo.

KLIP SPRINGER, n., chi^alama.

KNEE, n., lilungo.

KNEEL, t;.,-tindi^ala (-tindi^ele).

KNIFE, n., chipuLa, mkalo;
(large), lupanga.

KNOT, n., chilumbo.

KNOW, V. (understand), -manyi-
lila (-manyilile) ; (be acquainted
with), manya (-manye).

KOODOO, n., ndandala.

KRAAL, CATTLE-, n., lichinga.

ENGLISH-TAO VOCABULAEY

199

LACK, t;., -sowa (-so wile).
LADDER, n., makwelelo.
LADLE, n., chikoi ; — outy v.,

-pakula (-pakwile).
LAKE, n., nyasa.
LAMP, n,, nyali ; light a — , v.,

-pamba (-pambile) ; put out — ,

-simisya (-simisye).

LANDING-PLACE, n., chiko.

LARGE, adj.y -kulungwa'; grow — ,
v., -kula (-kusile).

LAST WELL, V., -ka\^a (-ka^ile) ;
he lasty -malichisya (-malichi-
sye) ; last night (adv.), chilo
cha lelo ; last year, mwa-
cheso.

LATE, BE, v., -koko^a (-ko-
kwe^e), -ka<^a (-ka^ile).

LATER, adv.j panyuma pakwe.

LAUGH, v., -seka (-sechile).

LAY DOWN, V,, -tula (-tusile),
-goneka (-goneche).

LAY EGGS, v., -tajila (-tajile).

LAZINESS, n., ulesi.

LEAD, v., -longolela (-longolele) ;
n., chumbu.

LEAF, n., lisamba.

LEAK, v., -sulula (-sulwile).

LEAN AGAINST, v., -jegama (-je-
geme).

LEAP, v., -sumba (-sumbile).

LEARN, v., -lijiganya (-lijigenye).

LEAVE, V,, -leka (-lesile) ; — a
place, -tyoka (-tyosile) ; take — ,
-langa (-lanjile) ; — , be ready
to, v., -kulumika (-kulumiche).

LEFT, TO THE, adv., ku mchlji.

LEG, n., lukongolo.

LEND, V, (temporarily), -jasima
(-jasirae) ; — for some time,
-kongola (-kongwele).

LENGTH, n., uleu ; lengthwise,
adv., chamchileu.

LEOPARD, n.y chisui.

LETTER, n., chikalata.

LEVEL, BE, v., -^atama (-Pa-
terae).

LICK, v., -lapita (-lapite), -lamba

(-lambile).
LID, n., liuniko, chiunichilo.
LIE, V. (tell lies), -lambusya (-la-

mbwisye) ; lie down, -gona

(-gonile) ; lie in wait for,

-jut^ilila (-ju^ilile) ; lies, n.,

unami.
LIFE, n., umi.

LIFT, V,, -nyakula (-nyakwile).
LIGHT, V. (a fire), -kolesya (-kole-

sisye) ; (a lamp), -pamba

(-pambile) ; — , he (in weight),

-jaluchilwa (-jaluehilwe).
LIGHTNING, n., iijasi.
LIKE, adv., chisau, mpela ; in

this manner, au utende'u ;

like, v., -nonyela (-nonyele) ;

he like, -landana na (-landene

na) ; resemblance, n., chilasya.
LIME, n,, njelesa.
LIMP, V,, -tundajila (-tundajile).
LINE, n., msela ; in line, adv.,

ndandanda.
LINGER, v., -koko^a (-kokwe^e),

-kai^a r-ka^ile).
LION, w., lisimba.
LIP, n., lugomo.
LISTEN, v., -pikana (-pikene), -pi-

kanila (-pikanile).
LITTLE, adj., -nandi, -mnono ;

a little, adv., panandi, panono ;

littleness, n., unandi ; he little,

v., -nandupa (-nandwipe).
LIVER, n., matoga.
LIVING, adj., -jumi.
LOAD, n., msigo, katundu ;

head-pad for — , singwa ;

put down — , v., -tula (-tusile) ;

put — on head, v., -twiehila

(-twiehile).
LOITER, v., -koko^a (-kokwe^e).
LONG, adj., -leu ; he long, v.,

-leupa (-lewipe) ; long ago,

kalakala.
LOOK, v., -Ida ^lolite) ; look after,

-lolela (-lolele).
LOOKING-GLASS, n., kalilole.
LOOPHOLE, n., ehimbeleta.

200

A YAO GBAMMAB

LOSE, v., -sokonechesya (-sokone-
che8ye),-jasa(-jasile); — (acase
at law), v,j -goma (-gomile).

LOST, BE, v., -jasika (-jasiche).

LOTS, THE, n., chisango.

LOVE, v., -nonyela (-nonyele).

LUCK, n., (good), upile ; {bad),
likungu.

LYING, adj., -nami.

M

MADNESS, n., masoka.

MAIZE, n., chimanga ; husked — ,

msokolo ; steeped — , mno^e ;

— -cob, chisonde ; stalk,

mpesi ; — strip off the cob, v,,

-pukutula (-pukutwile).
MAKE, v., -panganya (-pa-

ngenye) ; — bricks, -gumba

njelwa (-gumbile).
MALE, adj. (person), -lume ;

(animal), -mkambako.
MALLET, n., mkomelo.
MAN (person), n., mundu.
MANNER (method), w., utende ;

in this — , au utende'u, utende

inoino ; in that — , we utende

'wo.
MANNERS, TEACH (at unyago), v.,

-unda (-undile),
MANNERS (customs), n,, wenda.
MANY, adj., -jinji ; too many,

winji ; how many ? -lingwa? ;

be many, v., -ehuluka (-ehu-

Iwiche), -tupa (-tupile).
MARK, v., -lemba (-lembile).
MARKET, n., msika.
MARRIAGE, n., ulombela ; — ,

propose, v., -tombola (-^o-

mbwele).
MARRY, v., -lombela (-lombele).
MAST, n., msati.
MASTER, n., bwana (Swah.),

ambuje.
MAT, n., reed (sewn), ugono, ulili ;

(tied), lichika ; palm - leaf

(large), liambi ; (small), mkeka ;

(large round), chitanga.

MATCH (6e alike), v., -jilana (-ji-
lene).

MATTER (pus), n., UWOU.
"MATTER, IT DOESN'T," paugali

kandu.
MATURE, v., -komangala (-ko-

mangele) ; ripen, -jiula (-ji-

wile).
ME, pron., une.

MEAN, BE, v., -8uka (-suchile).
MEANING, n., mate.
MEASURE,*n., mlingo; v., -ling^

^-linjile) ; sca^, wesani,

(Sioah.),
MEAT, n., nyama.
MEDICINE, n., mtela ; — , pre-
pare, v., -jenjela (-jenjele).
MEET, v., -simana (-simene).
MEND, V, trans., -linganya (-li-

ngenye).
MENTION, v., -kolanga (-kolasile).
MERCY, n., chanasa.

MESSAGE, TAKE A, V., -lUIlgUSya

(-lungwisye).
MICTURATE, V., -tunda (-tu-

ndile).
MIDDLE, IN THE, adv., pakati,

pa chilikati, pa silikati.
MIDNIGHT, adj., pakati chilo.
MILK, n., mkaka (ChiNyasa) ;

mother's — , ma^ele ; miUc, v.,

-minya (-minyile).
MILLET, n., usanje ; sorghum,

mapemba.
MINE, pron., -angune.
MIRROR, n., kalilole.
MISS, v., -kulusya (-kulwisye).
MISTAKE, n., uleijiwa ; make a

— , v., -soya (-soyiye).
MIX, v., -Panganya (-^angenye) ;

— by stirring, -kolonganya

(-kolongenye), -unga(-unjile);

be mixed, -sungunukuka (-su-

ngunukwiche).
MONEY, n. (ndalama), mbiya.
MONDAY, n., lyu^^a lyakulemba.
MONKEY, n., ehitumbili.
MONTH, n., mwesi.
MOON, n., mwesi.

ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULARY

201

MORE, adj., pron,y -ine.

MORNING, EARLY IN THE, adv.,

kunda^i, kunda^ipe ; before
dawn, kumasikusiku ; next
morning, kunda^i kwakwe ;
start -early in the morning,
-la^a (-labile).

MORTAR, n., lituli ; pound in — ,
v., -twa (-twele) ; take prain
out of — , v., -tegula (-tegwile) ;
pestle, mwisi.

MOSQUITO, n,, njenjema.

MOTH, w., chipuluputwa.

MOTHER, n., amao, achikulu,

kusyeto ; in-law, akwego

(see Appendix 11).

MOULD, v., -gumba (-gumbile) ;
a brick-mould, chikombole.

MOUNTAIN, n., litumbi.

MOURN, v., -lila (-lisile) ; a mourn-
ing, malilo.

MOUSTACHE, n., ndeu.

MOUTH, n., pa kamwa.

MOVE TO ONE SIDE, V. neut,

-sejela (-sejele) ; trans., -se-
je8ya(-8ejesye) ; move quickly,
v., -chelenga (-chelesile') ; —
one^s horns, -sama (-samile).

MUCH, adj., -jinji.

MUD, n., matd{)e.

MUSHROOM, n., u^asi.

MY, pron., -angu ; my own,
-angune.

N

NAIL, n., msomali ; — of the

finger, chikalawesa.
NAME, n,, lina {pi., mena) ; give

— , v., -ta (-tele).
NATIVE, n., juampiliyu.
NATURE, n., upagwe.
NEAR, adv., mgulugulu, paku-

^andika.
NEAR, BE, v., -^andika (-^andi-

che) ; come — , -^andiehila

(-^andichile) ; put — , -wandi-

kanya (-\^andikenye).
NECK, n., lukosi.

NEEDLE, n., singano ; — {bam-
boo), chilo^a.

NEIGHBOUR, n., mnasi. .

NEST, n., chisusi.

NET, n., luao ; drag-net, likoka.

NEURALGIA, It., ching'alang'ala.

NEW, adj., -a sambano.

NEWS, n., ngani (pZ.).

NICE, BE, v., -salala (-salele),
-lumbana (-lumbene).

NICELY, adv., 'chenene, iche-
nene, uchenene.

NIGHT, n., chile ; midnight, pa-
kati chile ; last night, chile cha
lele.

NIMBLE, BE, V., -jalukangana
(-jalukangene).

NO, adv., ngwamba. .

NOBODY, ngapagwa {see page 72).

NOD, V. {with sleep), -gwesela
(-gweseie) ; beckon, -kedola
(-kodwele).

NOISY TALK, n., liscgwe.

NORTH, n., kumpote.

NOSE, n., lupula ; blow the — , v.,
-penga (-penjile) ; — , stud
worn in, n., chipmi.

NOSTRILS, n., mbula.

NOTHING, ngapagwa {see page 72).

NOW, adv., 8amb3,ne.

Now-A-DAYS, adv., ge me^^a'gano.

NUMBER, n., winji ; a large num-
ber, mwanda.

OBEISANCE, n., ulambi ; — , pay,

v., -lamba (-lambile).
OBEY, v., -pikana (-pikene).
OCCASION, n., katema.
OCCUR, v., -gwa (-gwile), -weneka

(-weneche).
OF, prep., -a.
OFTEN, (idv., kawili kawili ; how

often ? Kalingwa ?
OLD, adj., -chektilu (of persons) ;

-a kala {of things).
ON PURPOSE, adv., mele, me-

-lepe.

202

A YAO GBAMMAB

ONCE, adv,, kamo; at oThce, sa-

mb&no'jino.
ONE, num,f -mo ; pron., ugwe.
ONIONS, n., itunguu.
ONLY, adv,f -pe.
OPEN, v., -ugula ^ugwile) ; — a

hoxj -unukula (-unukwile).
OPENING, n., lipesa.
OPPORTUNITY, n., lipesa.
OR, conj,f kanga, pane.
ORDEAL POISON, ti. (mwai).
ORDER, V.J -lamula (-lamwile^ ;

put in — , v., -linganya (-li-

ncenye ; — {goods), v., -lajisya

(-Tajisye).
ORE, IRON, n., utale.
ORIBI, n., chikosimbi.
OTHER, adj., -ine.
OUGHT, v., -^ajilwa (-^ajilwe).
OUR, pron.y -etu ; our ovm, etuwe.
OUTSIDE, adv,y pasa, kusa.

OVERGROWN, BE (with gvass), V.,

-utala (-utele).
OVERSEER, n., jua chilole.
OVERTURN, v., -galausya (-gala-

wisye), -pitikusya (-pitikwi-

sye).
OWNER, n., asyene.
ox, n., ng'ombe.

PACK, v., -longa (-lonjele) ; —

tightly, v., -chinyindila (-chi-

nyindile).
PADDLE, v., -palasa (-palasile) ;

a paddle, n., mpalasilo.
PAIN, v., -poteka (-poteche^ ;

become less painful, -tondowa

(-tondwe^e).
PALM, BORASSUS, n., mgwala-

ngwa ; — , Raphia, chi^ale ;

palm-leaf, mlasa ; — rope of,

n,, lukwambala ; — of hand,

ligasa.
PAPER, n,, chikalakala, chipe-

pela.
PARABLE, n., chitagu ; — speak

in, V,, -welecheta chining^EU

PARBOIL, v., -uya ^uyile).

PARENT, n., nangola

PART, TAKE OF, V., -sapula (-sa-

pwile),
PASS, v., -pita ; — (put through),

-pisya (-pisisye) ; — beyond,

-pelenganya (-pelengenye).
PATCH, n., chigamba.
PATH; n., litala ; — , leave the, v.,

-sepuka (-sepwiche).
PATIENCE, HAVE, V,, -jembecheya

(-jembecheye).
PAY, v., -lipila (-lipile) ; wages,

malipilo, mbote.
PEACE, n., mtendele.
PEAS, n,, sa^a^a.
PEEL (off), V,, -matula (-matwile) ;

— (fruit), V,, -menya (-me-
nyile).

PEG, n., chichili, msomali ; —

(in waU), chipanda.
PEOPLE, n., ^andu.
PERHAPS, adv., panjipa, pane,

kanga, kwalini, kwaliko.
PERSEVERANCE, n., mtau.
PERSEVERE, V., -pimilila (-pimi-

lile) ; -chaiila (-chalile).
PERSON, n., mundu.
PESTLE, n., mwisi.
PICK UP, v., -lokotaf (-lokwete).
PIECE, n., chipisya.
PIERCE, v., -8oma(-somile), -poola

(-powele).
PIGEON (domestic), n., ngunda ;

cote, chitundu.

PILLOW, n., msamilo.

PINCH, v., -tona (-tonile).

PIPE, TOBACCO-, n., chilongo.

PITY, n., chanasa.

PLACE, w., liuto, malo ; place, v,

(see put) ; landing — , chiko ;

sleeping — , chigono ;• in the

first — , pa ndanda.
PLANE, v., -tilisya (-tilisye).
PLANT, n., mbeju ; — , v., -panda ;

a planter, juakusogosya.
PLASTER, v., -mata (-matile) ;

— sm,oothly, -syasyajila (-sya-
syajile).

ENGLISH-YAO VOOABUIjAEY

203

PLATE, n., mbale.

PLATFORM (Jot drying meat, etc.),

usau ; (for a bed, nidde of

earth), chilili.
PLAY, v., -ng'anda (-ng'andile).
PLENTY, n., winji ; he — (enough),

-jenanila (-jenanile).
PLOT, A {trea>chery)f n,, malindi.
PLUCK, t7. (fruit), -ka^a, (-ka^ile) ;

(a fowl), -mesa (-mesile).
POINT OUT, v., -lanjila (-lanjile).
POISON, FISH, w., mtutu ; —

ordeal, (mwai).
POLE, n., chitela ; — of house,

centre, tu, msati.
POND, n., litamanda.
POOL, n., litanda, lita^ale.
POOR, BE, V,, -laga (-lasile).
PORRIDGE, n., ugali.
POSSESS, v., -kola (kwete), -ka-

mula (-kamwile).
POSSIBLE, BE, v., -komboleka

(-komboleche).
POSSIBLY, adv., kwaliko. .
POST (verandah), n., luchanamila.
POT, n., mpika, chi^iga, chiu-

lugo ; water-pot, luulo.
POTATO, n., mbatata (pi ).
POUND, v., -twa (-twele), -twanga

(-twanjile), -ponda (-pondile^ ;

— steeped grain, v., -timbula

(-timbwile).
POUR, v., -taga (-tasile) ; — into

another vessel, -pungula (-pu-

ngwi le) ; — out, v., -j ita (-j it i 1 e).
POVERTY, 71., usanchi.
POWER, n., machili, uchimwene.
PRAY, v., -popela (-popele).
PRESENT, BE, V., -pagwa (-pa-

gwile) ; — , give a, v., -lagusya

(-lagwisye) ; — , n., msati.
PRESERVE, v., -gosa ^goslle).
PRETTY, BE, V., -salala (-salele).
PREVENT, v., -lekasya (-leka-

sisye).
PRICE, n., usume, (mtengo).
PROHIBITION (traditional), n.,

mpingusi ; — , observe, v, -gosa

(-gosiie).

PROLONG, V,, -leuya (-lewiye);
— ons^s stay, -lonjela (-lo-
njele).

PROPOSE (marriage), v,, -tombola
(-^ombwele).

PROSPER, v., -jinichilwa (-jini-
chilwe).

PROUD, BE, V,, -poka (-pochele) ;
pride, lilama.

PULL, V,, -uta (-utile) ; — out,
-swekula (-swekwile).

PUMPKIN, n., liungu (jpl., mo-
ngu).

PUNISH, V,, -sausya (-sausisye).

PURPOSELY, adv., melepe.

PURSUE, 1?., -kuya (-kuyiye).

PUS, n., uwou.

PUSH, V,, -tuta (-tutile).

PUT, V,, -^ika (-<^isile) ; (apply),
-taga (-tasile) ; — aside, -sa-
lasya (-salesye) ; — back,
-uehisya (-uchisye) ; — down,
-tula (-tusile) ; — in, -sweka
(-swechile) ; — in order, -li-
nganya (-lingenye) ; — on the
head, -twichila (-twichile) ; —
on top, -sajika (-sajiche) ; —
out (extinguish), -simisya (-si-
misye) ; — through, -pisya
(-pisisyeO ; — together, -pa-
mbula (-pambwile).

PUZZLE, v., -simosya (-simosi-
sye); puzzled, be, -simongwa
(-simongwile) ; puzzling, he,
-simonjeka (-simonjeche) ;
— , n., chitagu.

Q

QUANTITY, 71., wiuji ; increase — ,
v., -jonjechesya (-jonjeche-
sye).

QUARREL, TO., ndeu ; quarrelsome-
ness, umani ; — , catwe of,
li^amba.

QUICKLY, adv., ehitema.

QUIETLY, adv., chete ; quiet,
pe-e !

204

A YAO GBAMMAB

R

RACE, n., chilindasi.

RAFTERS, n,j chipagala.

RAIN, n., ula ; rainy seasofiy

chuku ; , beginning of,

mtuluka; rain^ v., -nya ula

(-nyele) ; rainsj first, chisi-

mopya.
RAISE, t?., -nyakula (-nyakwile),

-kwesya (-kwesisye).
RANSOM, I?., -tombola (-^o-

mbwele).
RAT, n., likoswe ; field-rat, li-

puku ; rat-trap, chigwenembe,

lili^a.
RATIONS, n., inga.
REACH, v., -ichila (-ichile).
READ, v., -^alanga (-^alasile).
READINESS, IN, adv., chile.
READY, MAKE, V,, -kulumisya

(-kulumisye).
REALLY, adv., kwene, chisimu.
REAP {maize), ik, -go^ola (*go-

^ele).
REASON, n., ligongo, li^amba ;

without — , lulele ; (foolishly),

v/^ambape.
REBUKE, v., -jamuka(-jamwiche).
RECEIVE, v., -pochela (-pochele).
RECENTLY, adv,, katasi.
RED, adj., -chejeu ; — , be, -che-

jela (-chejele) ; — , dye, v.,

-chesula (-cheswile).
REED, n., litete ; cut — , v., -tema

(-temile).
REED-BUCK, n., ndope.

REFRAIN FROft*, V., -ligOSa (-UgO-

sile).
REFUSE, v., -kana (-kanile), -jima

(-jimi).
REJOICE, v., -sechelela (-seche-

lele), -sangalala (-sangalele).
RELATIONS (see Appendix IT),
REMAIN, v., -sigala (-sigele).
REMEMBER, V., -kumbuchila

(-kumbuchile).
REMIND, v., -kumbusya (-ku-

mbwisye).

REMOVE, V,, -tyoeya (-tyoeisye).
RENT (tear), n., chipo^o.
REPEAT, v., -wilisya (-wilisye),

-tandilila (-tandilile^.
REPLY, v., -janga Manjile).
RESEMBLE, V., -landana (-la-

ndene), -wangala (-wangele).
RESOLVE, MAKE A, V., -chalila

(-chalile).

RESPECT, TREAT WITH, t?., -Chi-

mbichisya (-chimbichisye).
REST, v., -pumula (-pumwile).
RETURN, V. neut., -uja (-usile^ ;

trans., -uchisya (-uchisye) ;

— the same day, v., -ujanganya

(-ujangenye). *
RHEUMATISM, n., chilumi.
RHINOCEROS, H., mbela. .
RICE, n., mpunga.
RICH, BE, v., -sicbila (-sichile).
RIDICULE, n., chanftche.
RIFLE, n., uti (see gun).

RIGHT HAND, TO THE, adv,, ku

mlyo.
RIPE, BE (of grain), v., -komala

(-komele), -komangala (-ko-

man^ele) ; (of /n*tY), -jiula

(-jiwile).
RIVER, n., nyasa, lusulo ; cross a

— , 1?., -jomboka(-jombweche).
ROAD, HOED, n., mseu ; — , fork

of, n., malekano.
ROAR, v., -tongola (-tongwele).
ROCK, n., Iwala.

ROLL ABOUT ON THE GROUND, V.,

-galagata (-galagatile).

ROOF, n., msakasa, chipagala.

ROOM (space), n,, liuto, male.

ROOT, n., mchiga.

ROPE, n., lukonji ; bark-rope,
mgoji ; — of palm leaf, lu-
kwambala ; — , splice, v., -ti-
mbilisya (-timbilisye).

ROT, v., -^ola (-^osile).

ROUND, GO, v., -synngula (-syu-
ngwile) ; coil — , -syenga (-sye-
njile).

ROUSE, v., -jimusya (-jimwisye).

ROY-BUCK, n., swala.

ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULARY

205

RUB, V,, -tichita (-tichite) ; —

stomach {as compliment), -pata

(^patile).
RUBBISH, n., iswani ; — heap,

chitutu.
BUN, v.y -utuka (-utwiche) ; —

away, -tila (-tisile).
RUST, n., mkuo.

S

SABLE ANTELOPE, n., mbalapi.

SALE, THINGS FOR, n., malonda.

SALIVA, n., mat a.

SALT, n., njete.

SALUTE, «., -komasya (-koma-

sisye).
SAME, THE, n., chalumo, yalumo.
SAND, n., msanga.
SATISFIED, BE, V,, -jikuta (-ji-

kwite).
SATURDAY, n., lyu^a lyaku^e-

luka.
SAVE UP, u., -salasya (-salesye^j.
SAY, v.y -jila (-jile), -ti (-tiji,

-chite, -tite), -sala (-sasile).
SAYING, n., ngani.
SCALES (weighing), n., wesani

(Swah^ ; — , fish, n., ma^a-

mba.
SCISSORS, n,, makasi.
SCOLD, v., -jamuka (-jamwiche).
SCORCHED, B^, V,, -tinika (-tini-
. che).

SCORPION, n., chi^ala^ala.
SCRAPINGS OF POT, n., makokoto.
SCRATCH, v., -mwaga (-mwasile).
SCREAM, v., -gumila (-gumisile),

-jamila ^-jamisile).
SCUM, n., cniulo.
SEARCH FOR, v., -sosa (-sosile),

-lolela (-lolele).
SEASON (dry), n., chau ; — -. rainy,

chuku ; — , harvest, masika.
SEE, V,, -wona (-weni), -Ida (-lo-

lite) ; see off, -sindichisya

(-sindichisye).
SEED, n., mbeju.
SEEING THAT, conj,, pakuti,

mkuti.

SEEM, v., -wangala (-wangeleV
SEIZE, v., -kamula (-kamwile).
SELDOM, adv,, kamo kamo.
SELF, pron., -syene ; -li- (with verb),
SELL, v., -sumisya (-sumisye).
SEND, V, (a man), -tuma (-tu-

mile); (a thing), -tumisya

(-tumisye).
SENSE, n., mate, lunda.
SERVE (food), v., -pakula (-pa-

kwile).
SERVAL, n., njusi.
SET UPRIGHT, V,, -jimika (-jimi-

che) ; set (a trap\ -tega (-te-

sile, -tejile); set (of sun), -swa

(-swele).
SEW, v., -tota (-totile).
SHADE, n., uwilili ; in the — ,

mbwilili ; {lit, shadow).
SHAKE, v., >sangusa (-sangwise) ;

-tenganya (-tengenye).
SHAME, n,, soni.
SHARP, adj., -akutema ; sharpen,

V,, -nola (-nosileV
SHAVE, v., -myola (-myosile),

-moga (-mosile).
SHE, pron., ajo.
SHED, GRASS, n., lisakasa.
SHEEP, n., ngondolo.
SHILLING, w., lupiya (Hindustani,

rupee).
SHINE, v., -^ala (-^asile).
SHOOT, v., -gomba uti (-gombile),

-ulaga (-uleje) ; go for a shoot,

-jaula ku mikuli (-jawile).
SHORE, n., njengwe ; ashore, ku-

mkuli ; — , reach the, -kochela

(-kochele).
SHORT, adj., -jipi ; too — , wipi.
SHOULDER, n., likoyo.
SHOW, v., -losya (-losisye).
SHUT, v., -ugala (-ugele) ; — (a

box), -unichila (-unichile).
SICK, BE, v., -Iwala (-Iwasile) ;
• (romt*), -tapika(-tapiche); — ,

hut for the, n., chisako.
SIDE, n., mbali, upande ; the*other

side (of river), pesi ; of an

obstacle, pasyeto.

206

A YAO GRAlOfAR

SIFT, t?., -peta(-petile), -senyenda

(-senyendile) ; sifting basket,

lupeta.
SIGH, v,, -isya mtima (-isisye).
SILENT, pe-e ! ji-i !
SIMPLETON, 11,, jua chisilu.
SIN, n., ulemwa ; — , v., -lemwa

(-lemwile), -soya (-soyiye).
SINCE, conj,, pakuti, patipo.
SING, t;., -jimba (-jimbile).
SINGE, v., ^a^a (-^a^ile).
SINK, v., -titimila (-titimilo).
SISTER, n. {see Appendix IT),
SIT, v.y -tama (-temi).
SIZE, n., ukulu.
SKILL, n., ukungwi.
SKiN,n., lipende ; braytoitk ^tones,

v., -uuta (uutile) ; — , strip off,

v., -gwagula (-gwa^wile).
SKY, n., kwinani, kwiunde.
SLACK, BE {of rope), v., -tondot^a

(-tondwe^e).
SLANT, v., -pendaraa (-pendeme).
SLAVE, n., kapolo.
SLEEP, v., -gona m'lugono, -gona

^gonile^ ; he sleepy, -gwesela

(-gwesele).
SLIPPERY, BE, V,, -telesya (-te-

lesye).
SLOPPY, BE, v., -tepeta (-tepete) ;

sloppiness, ndepete.
SLOWLY, adv.j panandi panandi,

mbolembole.
SMALL, adj., -nandi, -mnono ;

smallness, u nandi ; he — , v.,

-nandupa (-nandwipe).
SMASH, v., -kasa (-kasile).
SMEAR, V,, -mata (-matile), -paka

(-pachile).
SMELL, V, trans,, -nusya (-nu-

sisye) ; — nice, v, neut,

-nunjila(-nunjilile) ; stink, v,,

-nunga (-nunjile).
SMILE, v., -mwetulila (-mwetu-

lile).
SMOif E, n,, liose ; — (tohacco), v.,

-kwemba (-kwembile) ; smoked,

be (of food), v., -uchilila (-uchi-

lile).

SMOOTHE, v., -tilisya (-tilisye).

SNAKE, n., lijoka.

SNEEZE, V,, -jesemula (-jese-
rawile).

SNIFF, V,, -nusya (-nusisye).

SNORE, v., -koloma (-kolwerae).

SNUFF, n., Bona juakunusya.

SO-AND-SO, nyono.

SOAK, V,, -lo^eka (-lo^eche).

SOFT, BE, v., -jolo^a (-jolwe^e) ;
soften {a skin) by rubbing, v.,
-uuta (-uutile).

SOIL, n,, litaka.

SOMEBODY, n., mundu ; some-
thing, n,, chindu.

SOMETIMES, adv,, pane ; from
time to time, katema kwa ka-
tema ; rarely, kamo kamo.

SON n,, mwanache {see Appendix

II).

SOON, adv,, pangaka^a.

SORE, n., li^anga ; be sore, v,,

-poteka (-poteche).
SORGHUM, n., mapemba.
SORRY, BE,v,, -dandaufa (-danda-

wile) ; " / am sorry " (condol-
ence), " Une juangali chilapo,"

" Iwele ya chanasa."
SORT, n., lukosyo, mtindi ; — ,

V,, -sagula (-sagwile), -loko-

tanya (-lokotenye).
SOUND, n,, lilo^e ; — (a bugle),

v., -gomba (-gombile).
SOUTH, kumwela.
SPACE, n., lipesa, liuto.
SPEAK, V,, -^echeta (-^echete),

-^elecheta (-^elechete).
SPEAR, n,, lipanga.
SPIRITS, THE, n., masoka.
SPLICE, v., -timbilisya (-timbili-

sye).
SPLINT, n,, chitanga.
SPLIT, V,, -kachula (-kachwile) ;

— up, V,, -^alula^(-^alwile).
SPOIL, v., -jonangaT (-jonasile),

-sakasya (-sakesye).
SPOON, WOODEN, n,, chikoyi.
SPOOR, n., likau, likumbo.
SPOTS, n,, ma^^ala.

ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULAKY

207

SPREAD, V. trans., -tandika ^-ta-
ndiche) ; neut, -jenela (-je-
nele) ; — in the 9un, v,, -janik'a
(-janiche) ; — out (cloth), -sa-
pangula (-sapangwile).

SPRINKLE, v., -misa (-misile) ;

— with the fingers, v,, -nyunya
(-nyunyile).

SPUD, n., chilaja.
SQUEEZE, V,, -minya (-minyile).
STAB, V,, -soma (-somile).
STAFF (stick), n., ngongo.
STAMMERING, adv, n., chimeme.
STAND, v., -jima (-jimi).
STAR, n., ndondwa.
START, v., -tyoka (-tyosile) ; —
early, v,, -la^a (-labile).

STARTLED, BE, V., -tojima (-to-

jime).
STAY, v., -tama (-temi) ; — some

time, v., -lonjela (lonjele).
STEAL, V,, -ji^a (-ji^ile).
STEEP (soak), v., -lo^eka (-lo-

^eche) ; — , he, v,, -lemala

(-lemele).
STICK, n., chitela ; walking-stick,

chimbonga, ngongo ; forked

stick, lipanda.
STIFF (hard), BE, v., -kwindimala

(-kwindimele).
STING, v., -luma (-lumile).
STINGY, BE, v., -suka (-suchile).
STINK, v., -nunga (-nunjile) ; a

stink, n., liungo.
STIR, t;.,-kologanya (-kologenye) ;

— porridge (in cooking), -uga
(-usile).

STOMACH, w., chitumbo, ma-

tumbo.
STONE, n., liganga.
STOOL (native), n., chitengu.
STOOP, v., -jinama (-jineme).
STOP, v., -leka (-lesile), trans,,

-lekasya ^-lekasisye) ; — work,

-^eluka (-^elwiche).
STOPPER, n., chisiwilo.
STORE (grain), n,, ngokwe ; take

out from — , v., -^asa (-^a-

sile).

STORY, n., ndano ; tell — , v,,
-jimba ndano (-jimbile).

STRAIGHT, BE, V,, -goloka (-gO-

Iweche) ; straighten, v., -golosya

(-golwesye^.
STREAM, «., lusulo ; country in

relation to a strea/tn, n., lisi ;

stream-garden, ku matimbe ;

— , bank of, mjengwe ; — ,

country between two, n., lu-

tando.
STRENGTH, w., machili.
STRETCH (especially oneself), v,,

-jongola (-jongwele), or refi,
STRIKE, V,, -puta (-putile) ; —

ujith fist, v., -twanga (-twa-

njile).
STRING, w., lukonji ; — , make,

v., -pota (-potile) ; st^'ing beads,

-tunga (-tunjile) ; — a bow or -

bed, V,, -kunga (-kunjile).
STRIP (maize from the cob), v,,

-putukula (-putukwile).
STRIPED, adj,, ina^ala-ma^ala.
STRONG, BE, V., -limba (-limbile).
STRUGGLE, V,, -pilipita (-pilipi-

tile).
STUMBLE, V,, -ku^ala (-ku^elej.
STUMP (of axe, hoe), n., chigwili ;

— (projecting), n., chisichi.
STUPID, BE, V,, -lo^ela ^lo^ele) ;

a stupid person, jua chisilu.
SUBMISSION, n., ulambi.
SUBSIDISE (especially an army),

V,, -lalika (-laliche).
SUCH AS THIS, yati'ii.
SUCK, v., -jonga (-jonjile).
SUFFER, v., -laga (-lasile).
SUFFICE, n., -jenanila (-jena-

nile) ; -jenela (-jenele).
SUGAR-CANE, n., mlungu.
SUITABLE, BE, V., -^ajilwa (-^a-

jilwe).
SUMMON, v., -^ilanga (-^ilasile),

-kolanga (-kolasile) ; beckon,

-kodola (-kodwele).
SUN, n., lyu^a ; rise, «., -cha

(-chele) ; set, v., -swa (-swele).
SUPPOSE, V,, -pela (-pesile).

208

A YAO GBAMMAB

SURPRISED, BE, V,, -lapa (-lapile).
SUSPEND, v., -koleka ^koleche) ;

suspended, be, v,, -saKama (-sa-

keme).
SWALLOW, v., -mila (-misileV
SWEAR (use had language), v.,

-tukana (-tukene).
SWEAT, n., chitukuta.
SWEEP, v., -pyajila (-pyajile) ;

broom, lisache.
SWEET, BE, v., -nong'a (-nonyile).
SWELL UP, V,, -imba (-imbile).
SWIM, v., -Dg'ambila (-ng'sr-

mbile).
swizzLESTicK, n., lupukuso.
SWORD, n., lupanga.

TAIL, n., mchila.

TAKE, v., -jigala (-jigele), -tola
(-tosile) ; — aioay, -tyosya
(-tyosisye) ; — off clothes,
-wula (-wusilej ; — off fire,
-tegala (-tegwile) ; — out of
fire, -jokola (-jokwele) ; —
ovi of grain store, -^asa
(-^asile) ; — part, -sapula
(-sapwile) ; — back, -uchisya
(-uchisye).

TAP (rubber), v., -goma (-gomile).

TASTE, v., -pasya ^pasisye) ; — ,
bitter, -^a^a (-wa^ile) ; taste-
less, be, -sisima (-sisime) ; lack
of flavour, n., usuma ; tasty,
desire of something, n,, luko^o.

TATOO MARKS, n., nembo.

TAX, n., msoko.

TEACH, V,, -jiganya (-jigenye) ;
— manners (at unyago), v.,
-unda (-undile).

TEAR, V,, -papula (-papwile) ; —
out, -kachula (-kachwile).

TELL, «., -tagulila (-tagalile),
-salila (-salile) ; — lies, -la-
mbusya (-lambwisye).

TEN, num,, likumi.

THAT, IN ORDER, conj,, kuti, ya-
pate.

THATCH, V,, -wimba (-wimbile).
THEIR, pron., -ao.
THEMSELVES, jwon., achimsyeiie.
THERE, adv., apo, kweleko, etc, ;

there is not, kwangali ; there

is, akuii.
THEREFORE, cotij.,' mSnSma,

ambi.
THIEF, n,, juawii.
THIOH, n., chiiga.
THIN, BE, v., -ganda (-gandile) ;

(of texture), -jepepala (-jep«-

pele).
THING, n., chindu.
THINK, 17., -ganisya (-ganisisye),

-pela (-pesile), -wona (-weni).
THIRST, n., njota.
THORN, n., mwi^a.
THOUGH, conj,, nambo (see also

ALTHOUGH).

THREAD, n., usi, ulusi ; twist — ,

-singa (-sinjile).
THREE, num., -tatu.
THROAT, n., ku ngulo.
THROW, v., -ponya (-ponyile) ;

— away, -jasa (-jasile).
THUMB, n., chala cha chikongo.
THUS, adv., iyoyo, sai, inoino,

*ii, au utende'u.
TIDY, PUT, v., -linganya (-li-

ngenye).
TIE, v., -ta^a (-ta^ile) ; — to-
gether, -lumbikanya, (-lumbi-

kenye).
TIME, n., katema ; how many

times ? kalingwa ?
TIP (end), n., mtepa.
TIRED, BE, v., -sakalika (-saka-

liche), -pela (-pesile).
TO, prep., ku, kwa.
TOAD, n., chiula.
TOBACCO, n., sona ; smoke — , v.,

-kwemba (-kwembile) ;

— pipe, n., chilongo.
TO-DAY, adv., lelo.

TOE, n., chala ; great — , e. cha
chikongo ; little — , c cha
nyonje ; — nail, n., chikala-
wesa.

ENGLISH-TAO VOCABULARY

209

TOGETHER, adv,, p a m p G p 6,

pamo ; go — , v,, -longana

(-longene).
TOKEN, n., chimanyililo.
TOMATO, n., lipwetechela.
TOMB, n., chilisa.
TO-MORROW, adv., mala^i ; day

after — , mtondo ; two days

after — , mkucha.
TONGUE, n,, lulimi.
TOOTH, n., lino (pi, meno) ;

tooth-brush (native), mswache.
TOP, ON, adv., pa chanya, penani;

place — — , v., -sajika (-sa-

jiche).
TRACK, n., likumbo, likau.
TRADE, v., -sumana (-sumene) ;

— n., upasani.

TRADER, BANYAN, n., m'mwenye.
TRAMPLE ON, V., -li^ata (-li^ete).
TRAP, n., chigwenembe ; flat

stone, lilK^a ; set — , v., -tega

(-tesile) ; go off, v., -ituka

(-itwiche).
TRAVELLER, n., mlendo.
TREACHERY, 71., malindi.
TREAD, v., -li^ata (-li^ete).
TREE, n., mtela ; fell — , v.,

-kanga (-kanjile).
TREMBLE, V., -tetemela (-tete-

mele).
TRENCH, n., lukoloma.
TRIBAL MARKS, n., nembo.
TRIBE, n., lukosyo.
TRIM NAILS, v., -sinda (-sindile).
TRIP (stumble), v., -ku^ala

(-ku^ele).
TROUBLE, v., -8ausya (-sausisye),

-sakalisya (-sakalisye) ; be in

— , -singalilwa (-singalilwe).
TRUSS (of cloth), n., mtumba.
TRUST, v., -kulupilila (-kulu-

pilile).
TRY, v., -linga (-linjile).
TURN BACK, v., -ujiHla (-ujilile),

-galauka (-galawiche); —

aside, v., -sepuka (-sepwiche) ;

— round, v., -galausya (-gala-
wisye) ; — over, -pitikusya

(-pitikwi8ye),-unika (-uniche);

— face up (right way up),

-galika (-galiche).
TWICE, adv., kawili.
TWIST (thread), v., -singa (-si-

njile), -pota (-potile) ; —

round, v., -syenga (-syenjile).
TWO, num., -will.

U

ULCER, n., li^anga.
UNCLE, n., atati (see Appendix IT).
UNDER, prep., pasi pa.
UNDERSTAND, V., -manyilila (-ma-

nyilile), -pilikana (-pilikene).
UNDRESS, v., -wula (-wusile).
UNFOLD, v., -sapangula (-sapa-

ngwile).

UNFORTUNATE, BE, v., -kola

likungu (-kwete).
UNHAPPY, BE, v., -laga (-lasile).

UNINHABITED AREA, n., lipululu.

UNRAVEL, v., -sapangula (-sa-

pangwile).
UNRIPE, adj., -^isi.
UNTIE, v., -gopola (-gopwele).
UNTIL, prep., mpaka.
UPHILL, adv., ku mkuli.
UPRIGHT, SET, V., -jimika (-ji-

miche).
UPROOT (tear up by roots), v.;

-kachula (-kachwile) ; -tupula

(-tupwile).

UPSIDE DOWN, TURN, V., -piti-

kusya (-pitikwisye), -galausya
(-galawisye) ; -unika (-uniche).

UPSTREAM, adv., kumkuli.

USELESS, adj., -mtega ; uselessly,
adv., wambape.

VALLEY, n., liti^i.
VEGETABLE, n., liponda.
VERANDAH, n., lipenu ; — room,

lukole ; — post, luchanamila.
VERY, adv., mnope, kuayene ; very

much, very often, kwakujinji»

14

210

A YAO GRAMMAR

VILLAGE, n., musi ; — large, n.,
msinda ; — new, n., luno ;
— deserted, n., masame.

VISIBLE, BE, v., -woneka (-wo-
neche).

VOMIT, v., -tapika (-tapiche).

W

WAGES, n., malipilo, mbote.
WAIT, V,, -linda (-lindile), -je-

mbecheya Membecheye) ; lie

in vHiit, -juwilila (-jui^ilile).
WAKEN, v., -jimu8ya(-jimwi8ye).
WALK, v., -jenda, (-jesile) ; go for

a — , -jaula kwimajima ; —

/oa*, -tugala (-tugele) ; wcUk-

ing-stick, chimbonga ; — staff,

ngongo.
WALL, n., lipupa ; partition — ,

lusasa.
WANDER ABOUT, v., -la^ala^a

(-la^ala^ile).
WANDERINGS, n., wende.
WANT, v., -saka (-sachile), -sosa

(-sosile); (lack), -sowa

(-sowile).
y WAR, n., ngondo.

WARM ONESELF AT FIRE, V,, -jota,

-lijota (-jotile).

WARM UP (food), v,y. -k5sya
(-kOsisye).

WARTHoG, n., mbango.

WASH, V. (clothes), -chapa (-cha-
pile), -saula (-sawile) ; (per-
son), -joga (-josile) ; (hands),
-na^a (-na^ile) ; (face), -su-
kusula (-sukuswile) ; (aw
article), -siika (-suchile).

WASTE, v., -jonan^a (-jonasile).

WATCH, V,, -lindilila (-lindilile) ;
' — house, n,, chilindo.

WATER, n., mesi ; water-pot, luulo.

WATERBUCK, n., ndogofo.

WATERSHED, n., lutando, mlila.

WAY, w. (path), litala ; {manner),
utende.

WE, pron., uwe, uweji ; — our-
selves, uwewe.

WEAK, BE, v., -loi^ela (-loi^ele).
WEALTH, n., chipanje.
WEAR (clothes), »., -wala (-wete).
WEAVE (baskets), v., -luka (-lu-

chile).
WEDDING, n., ulombela.
WEED, n., chikoko ; — , v., -lima

luwila (-limile).
WEIGH, V,, -linga (-1 i n j i 1 e) ;

scales, n., wesani.
WELL, adv., ichenene, uchenene,

chenene ; — , conj., kwende ;

— , n., chisima.
WET, BE, v., -nyo^a (-nyowe^e,

-nyo^ile).
WHAT ? pron,, chichi ; adj. pron.^

chi, -api ; — about it ? ambi

uli ; — for ? -a chichi ; —

kind of? -a chi.
WHEEL, n., chitungulu.
WHEN? adv., lyu^a chi, chaka

chi, katema chi ; — (feL),

pe, po, pi, pa.
WHERE ? adv., kwapi, papi,

m w a p i ; — (rel.), pe, po,

pa, pi.
Whether, conj., kanga, pane.
WHICH ? pron., -api, chi.
WHISPER, v., -songona (-so-

ngwene).
WHISTLE, v., -gomba lulu si

(-gombile); — (bamboo),

chikwelu.
WHITE, adj., -swela ; — ants, n.,

ucheche ; — ants (flying),

ngumbi ; — , be, v., -swejela

(-swejele).
WHO? pron., ^ani; whom?

cheni ; whose ? -a clieDi.
WHY ? adv., li^ongo chichi.
WIDE, -ana chitipa.
WIDTH, n., chitipa.
WIFE, n., asono, asonogo ; head-

wife, kusyeto.
WILD BEAST, ti., chikoko.
wiLDEBEESTE, h., sindi.
WIND, n., mbungo, mbepo ;

blow, v., -puga (-pujile).
WINDOW, n., chimbeleta.

ENGLISH-YAO VOCABULARY

211

WING, n., lipapiko.

WIPE, V.J -pukuta (-pukwite).

WIRE, n.j lusambo.

WISDOM, n., lunda.

WISH, v.y -saka (-sachile), *sosa

(-sosile).
WITCHCRAFT, n., usa^i.
WITH, prep., ni, na.
WITHER, V,, -nyala (-nyasile).
WITHOUT, adj.f -angali, ; he — ,

V.J -sowa (-80 wile).
WITNESS, n., mboni.
WOMAN, n., juamkongwe, ^a-

kongwe, mbumba ; pL,

achambumba, achamba,

achakongwe.
WONT, BE, V.J -syo^elela (-syo^e-

lele).
WOOD (jungle), n., mseso ; wooden,

adj.j -a mtela.
WORD, ri.,-lilo^e.
WORK, n., masengp ; stop — , v.,

-^eluka (-^elwiche).
WOUND, n.j li^anga ; — - v.,

-ulala (-ulele), -soma (-somileV
WRIGGLE, V.J -pilipita (-pilipite).
WRITE, V.J -lemba (-lembile).
WRONG, DO, v., -soya (-soyiye),

-lemwa (-lemwile).

YARD, n. {measure) J upande {pl.j

mbande) ; courtyard, ku

nganya.
YAWN, V.J -jasama mwaju

(-jaseme).
YEAR, n., chaka ; — before last,

mwachejusi ; last — , mwa-

cheso ; next — , pa chaka,

chaka chine ; this — ,

namyaka.
YES, adv.j elo.
YESTERDAY, adv., liso ; day before

— , lijusi.
YOU, pron.j umwe, ^alakwe ;

you yourself, umweji ; "i/ou

there ! " ^anyamwe.
YOUR, pron.j -enu ; your own,

-enumwe.
YOUTH, n.j mchanda ; (abstract^

uchanda.

Z

ZEBRA, n.j mbunda.

abbbdbbn: thb univbbsitz fbbss,